New Jersey Administrative Code
Title 2 - AGRICULTURE
Chapter 91 - ANIMAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
Appendix - APPENDIX
Current through Register Vol. 56, No. 18, September 16, 2024
PART IV. Directory of Best Management Practices for Water Quality Protection on the Farm
A. Introduction
With respect to water quality, a best management practice is a method, measure or practice applied to prevent or reduce surface and ground water pollution.
THIS DIRECTORY OFFERS a "menu" of management options designed to address water quality impacts on farms. These options are called Best Management Practices (BMPs). With respect to water quality, a best management practice is a method, measure or practice applied to prevent or reduce surface and ground water pollution. Another term for "best management practice" is "conservation practice," used for many years by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). In fact, many "conservation practices" have been in common practice since the Service was created in the dust bowl days.
Many of the practices and measures listed in the
Directory were, in fact, developed by the NRCS. The New Jersey State
Office of the NRCS has assembled those practices most pertinent to New Jersey from a
very wide national inventory of BMPs. These BMPs for New Jersey have been collected
in the NRCS "Field Office Technical Guide" (FOTG) available at
Other BMPs have been developed by farmers and others in the agriculture industry. These BMPs have been tested and proven to be effective in addressing the problem, but currently are not among the list of practices and measures in the FOTG. Such practices may be innovative and extremely effective; some may not have yet withstood the tests of time or quality control that provide additional assurance of their overall effectiveness.
In most cases, the descriptions of BMPs in the Directory do not provide all the information needed to put the measure into practice. Agricultural composting is a good example of a practice that requires far more information than presented here. Some BMPs, such as the installation of a sediment basin or the implementation of an integrated pest management (IPM) program, require substantial technical assistance. Some installations require engineering. The purpose here is to acquaint farmers with the menu of options, and to provide enough information to enable further steps. These further steps may require collecting more data, obtaining technical assistance, or simply securing the proper equipment.
Some of the BMPs may require state or federal permits to implement. Working in or near wetlands or water bodies, composting and use of pesticides are examples of activities that may require a permit. It is best to check with the Cooperative Extension, Conservation District or Natural Resources Conservation Service office before such a project is initiated.
NOTE: The "best management practices" included in this Directory have broad application to a wide range of New Jersey farm enterprises. However, certain commodities, including cranberries, forest products and aquaculture, will have particular concerns and issues that require commodity-specific tools to address them. These are not our focus here; however, Part V of this Guide includes resources and references for these and other more commodity-specific concerns.
B. More on "BMP"s
A BMP may be a practice, such as crop rotation or integrated pest management. Or a BMP may be a structure, such as a manure storage system or a grassed waterway.
A BMP MAY BE A PRACTICE, that is, a non-structural operation such as crop rotation or integrated pest management. Or a BMP may be the installation of a structure, such as a manure storage system or a grassed waterway. A BMP may be used to correct existing problems and/or to prevent future potential degradation of water resources.
Rarely will the use of a single BMP for any land use activity be sufficient to adequately address water quality problems. More often, several BMPs, individually selected to fit the unique characteristics of each site and farming operation, will be required. These practices, when grouped, may be referred to as a "conservation management system."
Rather than focus on individual practices, a conservation management system focuses on the sum of the parts. It takes into account the range of effectiveness of any single practice, its cost, and the resulting overall cost and effectiveness. Some individual practices may not be very effective alone, but, in combination with others, may provide a key function in a highly effective system.
A single BMP may address more than one problem. For example, a riparian (streamside) buffer may remove or reduce nutrient, sediment and pesticide contamination, while also enhancing the biological diversity of plant and animal species. It is also possible that a BMP designed to address one problem may actually contribute to another. For example, a farmer who uses conservation tillage, which can reduce erosion and sedimentation, may wind up applying increased amounts of herbicides to control weed pressure, with potentially detrimental impacts to ground water.
One or more "best management practices" may be selected to eliminate, prevent or reduce farm-related water pollution. Professional technical assistance is recommended to provide a more detailed assessment and a set of recommendations for modifications to farm practices. Worksheets C1-6, provided for use with this Directory, offer farmers the opportunity to make appropriate selections from the "menu" of best management practices included here.
C. Using the Directory
THE BMPS LISTED IN this Directory have been organized into sections. These sections address strategies for:
1. erosion and sediment control
2. nutrient management
3. pest and pesticide management
4. livestock barnyard, manure and waste management
5. livestock grazing management
6. irrigation management
In each section, there is a description of specific BMPs that can be incorporated into a management plan to address the problem. Each BMP is described as follows:
-- Name of the BMP. Those that require structures to be built are designated with an "(s)".
-- Definition - describes the practice or structural change.
-- Purpose - describes how the practice protects water quality. Some details about implementation and options are included.
-- Initial Cost - provides a rough estimate of costs involved in implementing or installing the practice.
LOW - the cost of implementation or installation is less than $ 1,000; it may cost nothing
MEDIUM - the cost of implementation or installation is between $ 1,000 and $ 4,000
HIGH - the cost of implementation or installation is above $ 4,000
-- Maintenance Cost - provides a rough estimate of the annual cost of maintaining the practice or the installation. For most practices, this is estimated on a per acre basis; for structural measures, the estimate will be further defined by the particular site.
-- Technical Assistance - indicates whether outside technical assistance is: not required, desirable, or required to implement the practice.
-- Other Benefits - gives a partial listing of additional benefits that may be derived from implementing the BMP, including other environmental protections, cost savings or efficiencies. These benefits are useful in planning for the whole farm.
-- Other Considerations - gives a partial listing of possible "side effects" and other implications of implementing the BMP that are useful in thinking about the whole farm system.
1. Strategies for Erosion and Sediment Control
Best Management Practices address strategies for managing erosion and sediments, nutrients, pests and pesticides, livestock, barnyard, manure and waste, livestock grazing and irrigation.
Management systems for controlling soil erosion and sedimentation address two resource issues: water quality and soil loss. The erosion and sediment control management practices in this section may also serve to satisfy other concerns, such as nutrient or pest management.
In addressing pollution issues, the first line of defense is to control the problem at the source, that is, to reduce the availability of the pollutant and the opportunity for it to detach from its surroundings. For sediment control, this means employing methods to keep the soil on the field. The next line of defense is to prevent the pollutant, in this case traveling soil particles, from entering a water source.
The following is a list of BMPs that are recommended to reduce or eliminate water pollution from sediments.
Best Management Practices for Erosion and Sediment Control
Conservation cover prevents soil erosion by keeping the soil from being disturbed. Typical plantings are grass, shrubs or trees.
a. Conservation Cover
Definition: establishment and maintenance of permanent vegetative cover on land retired from production.
Purpose: to prevent soil erosion by keeping the soil from being disturbed. A permanent (perennial) cover is not typically cultivated, and the cover protects the soil from exposure. Typical plantings are grass, shrubs or trees. Such plantings may have productive value, such as walnut trees or blueberry bushes.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: improves soil tilth; decreases pesticide and fertilizer use; may provide economic gain from perennial crops; may enhance wildlife.
Other Considerations: loss of annual cropland acreage if field is planted to a permanent cover.
b. Conservation Crop Rotation
Definition: a planned sequence of growing annual or perennial crops on the same field - the opposite of continuous cropping, where the same crop is grown in the same field year after year.
Purpose: to reduce detachment and transport of sediment by maintaining or improving the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil. A sequence of crops is selected to provide a high degree of soil cover and adequate organic residue for maintenance or improvement of soil tilth. Including a legume or grass in a rotation can be very effective for reducing erosion and improving soil structure. Also, rotations decrease loss of dissolved and sediment-attached nutrients and pesticides. Rotations designed for erosion control may differ from rotations planned as components of pesticide and/or nutrient management.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: may reduce nutrient loss and need for commercial nitrogen; addition of organic matter increases soil fertility; may disrupt build-up of insect populations, disease life cycles and weeds, thereby reducing applications of pesticides; may maximize water use efficiency; may benefit wildlife; may increase yields; may enhance enterprise diversity.
Other Considerations: when legumes are used in a rotation, the nitrogen supplied should be taken into account to prevent over-application of nitrogen on subsequent crops. Soil fertility levels should be monitored and maintained within acceptable ranges for all crops in the rotation. There are economic and management considerations regarding crop selection, as well.
c. Contour Farming
The ridges and furrows created by contour farming reduce surface runoff by blocking water movement, allowing soil particles to remain in place.
Definition: tilling, planting, cultivating and harvesting crops across the field slope.
Purpose: to reduce surface runoff and transport of sediments. Farming on the contour reduces both velocity and volume of runoff by presence of ridges and furrows that block water movement, allowing soil particles to remain in place. Contour farming may follow the establishment of terraces or diversions.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: see pesticide management; see nutrient management; increased infiltration may promote better crop growth and increased soil tilth.
Other Considerations: slowing surface runoff may increase infiltration of pesticides or nutrients.
d. Contour Strip-cropping
Definition: the practice of planting strips of crops across the contour (see contour cropping, above) so that those crops that provide limited soil cover (such as annual row crops like corn) are alternated with those that provide protective soil cover (such as hay).
Purpose: to reduce surface runoff and transport of sediments. Strip-cropping may be designed in a rotation.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: if in a rotation, legumes can contribute to soil nitrogen.
Other Considerations: may increase or decrease pesticide and/or fertilizer use.
e. Contour Buffer Strips
Definition: strips of perennial vegetation on the contour, 15 to 30 feet wide, separating sections of annual row crops.
Purpose: to slow runoff flow, trap sediment, nutrients and pesticides, and increase water infiltration.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: vegetation provides food and cover for small upland birds and mammals. Beneficial insects can find habitat in strips, if proper vegetation is chosen.
Other Considerations: slightly reduces amount of crop production acreage, although hay can be harvested from contour buffer strips.
f. Cover Cropping
Definition: a cover of close-growing grasses, legumes or small grains grown primarily for seasonal protection and soil improvement.
Purpose: to control erosion and sedimentation by providing a soil cover, reducing exposure of soil particles; applied when the major crop does not furnish adequate cover, or following harvest; used to cover the soil during winter months; usually planted annually except where used as a permanent cover as in orchards; cover and green manure cropping also serve other important purposes (see below). Sometimes cover crops are seeded by aerial application.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: see pesticide management; see nutrient management; cover and green manure crops add organic material to the soil, improve infiltration, aeration, tilth and wildlife habitat.
Other Considerations: cost of seeds and additional management.
g. Critical Area Planting
Critical area planting reduces erosion by providing suitable plant cover on areas that are eroding or likely to erode.
Definition: planting vegetation such as trees, shrubs, grasses or legumes on highly erodible or critically eroding areas.
Purpose: to reduce erosion and sedimentation by providing a suitable plant cover on areas that are eroding or likely to erode. Typically, plantings are perennial.
Initial Cost: medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: see nutrient management; may enhance habitat for wildlife, including "beneficials".
Other Considerations: an increase in erosion may occur during establishment of the planting in these areas; loss of cropland area.
h. Diversion(s)
Channels or drainageways constructed across a slope divert water away from areas where it is excessive to sites where it can be used or disposed of properly.
Definition: a channel or drainageway constructed across a slope.
Purpose: to divert water away from areas where it is excessive to sites where it can be used or disposed of properly and safely. The channel is constructed with a supporting ridge on the downhill side. It intercepts surface runoff water, and reduces runoff volume and velocity by reducing the length of the slope. Diversions are not designed to accommodate a large amount of sediment in the channel, and are not a substitute for other erosion control measures such as terracing. Diversions may be vegetated or nonvegetated and have an outlet.
Initial Cost: medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: diverts water carrying pollutants such as barnyard waste from surface waters; may improve wildlife habitat; improves crop health and farmability by diverting excess water.
Other Considerations: may increase delivery of pollutants to surface waters.
i. Field Borders
Definition: a strip of perennial vegetation established at the edge of a field.
Purpose: to reduce transport of sediment by providing "anchoring points" for contour rows, terraces, diversions and contour strip farming.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may have benefits for wildlife.
Other Considerations:
j. Field Strip-cropping
Definition: systematic arrangement of crops in strips across the general slope (not contour).
Purpose: to reduce delivery of sediments to water bodies by alternating crops that provide limited soil cover with those that provide high soil cover. Since crops are not grown on the contour, there will be areas of concentrated flow. Strip cropping may be done in a rotation.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: see pesticide management; see nutrient management; rotation may increase soil tilth.
Other Considerations: areas of concentrated flow potentially may increase delivery of sediments at a more rapid pace. There are crop selection and management considerations as well.
k. Filter Strip
Definition: an area (typically a strip) of vegetation that is planted and maintained as a permanent cover.
Purpose: with regard to control of erosion and sedimentation, the purpose of a filter strip is to capture sediment transported by runoff. Filter strips trap and remove solids, especially coarser grained and organic materials. Filter strips may be installed at the lower edge of fields, upgradient of terraces or diversions, or on fields next to wetlands, streams or ponds. They vary in their effectiveness and maintenance requirements.
Initial Cost: medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: nutrient management; pesticide management; filter strips can also be designed to handle silage juice runoff.
Other Considerations: depending on the function(s) that a filter strip is designed to perform, the degree of efficiency and level of management may vary.
l. Grade Stabilization Structure - Water Control Structure(s)
Grade stabilization structures control erosion in channels and prevent the formation or advance of gullies. They may also enhance habitat.
Definition: a structure used to control the grade and head cutting in natural or artificial channels.
Purpose: to stabilize the grade and control erosion in channels and to prevent the formation or advance of gullies. The structure may be a combination of earth embankment, mechanical spillway, and detention-type structure, and could include an inlet or surface drain component.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may enhance habitat.
Other Considerations: attention to fish and wildlife habitat in design and construction; livestock should be fenced out to protect the structure.
m. Grassed Waterway(s)
Definition: a natural or constructed channel or outlet that is shaped or graded to certain dimensions and vegetated.
Purpose: to provide a stable and controlled outlet for the disposal of runoff. Grassed waterways are planted in a suitable grass/legume mix and may have a stone center. The vegetation slows runoff and filters out sediments; usually installed on sites where additional control is required to manage concentrated runoff, as from diversions.
Initial Cost: medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: see nutrient management; see pesticide management; may provide habitat for beneficials.
Other Considerations: may provide habitat for pests.
n. Mulching
Mulching can reduce runoff and transport of sediment by trapping rain drops, especially in areas that are eroding and or bare. It may also control weeds and provide nutrients through microbial breakdown.
Definition: applying plant residues or other suitable materials to the soil surface.
Purpose: to reduce runoff and transport of sediment by trapping rain drops, especially in areas that are eroding and/or bare; used to allow vegetation to establish itself, to provide cover where vegetation is not possible or desired, or in association with a crop. Plastic mulches perform some of these functions.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: mulching conserves moisture, prevents surface compaction or crusting, controls weeds and helps establish plant cover; may provide nutrients through microbial breakdown.
Other Considerations: may lower soil temperature; may introduce weed seeds; plastic mulches do not degrade and must be removed from the field.
o. Outlet or Lined Waterway(s)
Definition: a waterway with an erosion-resistant lining of concrete, stone or other permanent material.
Purpose: to reduce erosion in concentrated flow areas, resulting in the reduction of sediment and other substances delivered to receiving waters. This practice may be a component of a waste management system where barnyard runoff is directed away from sensitive areas.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: necessary
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
p. Pasture and Hayland Planting
Definition: appropriate treatment and use of pastureland or hayland.
Purpose: regarding erosion and sedimentation, appropriate planting and management of hay or pastureland will reduce erosion and transport of soil particles. Fields covered in permanent vegetation year round are very resistant to erosion.
Initial Cost: medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may enhance plant vigor; may improve forage and haylage quality leading to improved animal health; may decrease pest and/or nutrient management requirements.
Other Considerations:
q. Residue Management: No-till, Strip Till, Mulch Till, Ridge Till
No-till, strip till, mulch till and ridge till systems are known to reduce erosion and sedimentation by as much as 90% in certain circumstances.
Definition: any tillage and planting system that minimizes physical disturbance of the soil and leaves approximately 30% of the surface covered by plant residue after planting.
Purpose: to reduce runoff causing detachment and transport of sediments. There are a variety of conservation tillage systems including mulch-till, ridge-till, and strip-till. Conservation tillage is applicable on sloping, highly erodible cropland, where adequate plant residues are produced. It is known to reduce erosion and sedimentation by as much as 90% in certain circumstances. In mulch-tillage the entire soil surface is tilled; at least 30% residue cover is left on the soil surface immediately following planting. In ridge-tillage, ridges are initially established and then planted year after year, with or without subsequent cultivation; at least 30% residue remains. Ridge-till is appropriate primarily for continuous row crops. Strip-till requires tilling of narrow strips for seeding or transplanting, leaving undisturbed surface residues in between; strip-till may be combined with ridge-till, and is appropriate for vegetable and small fruit crops. No-till is a method of planting in prior crop residue, cover crop or perennial sod crop where the surface of the field is left undisturbed. Specialized equipment is needed.
Initial Cost: low, if equipment is rented; medium if equipment is purchased.
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for start-up
Other Benefits: increases soil tilth; increases soil temperature and moisture retention; may break pest and disease cycles; may decrease available weed seeds (no longer brought to the surface by plowing); reduces compaction; reduces fuel and labor costs and saves time.
Other Considerations: may increase ground water contamination by increased fertilizer and pesticide use and by increasing infiltration rates (but application rates may decrease over time); incorporation of fertilizers and pesticides is more difficult; careful nutrient management is advised; may delay germination due to cooler soil temperatures; residues may serve as host site for pests.
r. Riparian Buffer
Definition: an area of trees and other vegetation located adjacent to and up-gradient from water courses, water bodies and associated wetlands.
Purpose: to protect water quality by preventing streambank erosion, removing sediment, absorbing nutrients and pesticides and allowing better nutrient uptake. When plantings are carefully selected and maintained, and the practice is used together with other nutrient and sediment control practices, riparian buffers are highly effective and low maintenance.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may enhance conditions for desirable aquatic plants and animals; may provide commercial timber or forage; may improve wildlife habitat.
Other Considerations:
s.The Nutrient and Sediment Control System (NSCS) is both a biological filter and physiochemical treatment system. The goal of an NSCS is to maximize reduction of total and soluble phosphorus, and reduction of nitrogen, organic matter, bacteria and fine sediments reaching lakes and streams. The system is functional at different levels of efficiency during all seasons under a broad range of ecological, hydrologic and pollutant load conditions.
The complete NSCS is a combination of a sediment basin, grassed buffer, a vegetated shallow pond, a deep pond, and a vegetated "polishing" area.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: Will increase habitat value
Other Considerations: Will require over one acre for a drainage area of fifty acres and increase proportionally from there.
t. Sediment Basin(s)
Sediment basins trap and collect sediments and excess water, allowing sediments to settle out of runoff water before it discharges into surface water bodies.
Definition: a depression constructed to collect and store debris or sediment.
Purpose: to trap and collect sediments and excess water and to control runoff. The basin may be dug or constructed as an earthen embankment or a combination of ridge and channels. It allows sediments to settle out of runoff water before it discharges into surface water bodies. The basin needs to be maintained by periodically removing collected materials.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may increase habitat value if permanently seeded.
Other Considerations: may increase infiltration of soluble materials such as some pesticides.
u. Stream Channel Stabilization Measures
Definition: any of a number of constructed measures along or across natural or constructed waterways.
Purpose: to reduce erosion and sedimentation into water bodies. These measures include: spur dikes, which are fingers of stone that extend into a creek; grade control structures, which control the grade and head cutting in channels by creating a series of small "waterfalls"; and riprap bank protection, in which layers of large stones are placed along stream banks or crossings. May also include vegetative "bio-engineered" solutions such as installation of organic rolls and mats and plantings of suitable vegetation.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may prevent loss of land or damage of facilities located near banks; may maintain capacity or stability of a channel; may enhance habitat.
Other Considerations: some constructed measures, such as riprap, may negatively impact riparian habitat, especially in stream banks.
v. Tree Planting
Definition: planting and maintenance of trees.
Purpose: to reduce erosion and sedimentation by providing stable, perennial cover and root mass.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: see nutrient management; may attract beneficial insects and birds.
Other Considerations:
2. Strategies for Nutrient Management
A farm nutrient plan is a comprehensive strategy for addressing nutrient input needs on the farm. It includes information on crop requirements, nutrient availability, proper timing and amount of application and environmental considerations.
Plants must receive sufficient and proper nutrients, at the proper times and in the necessary amounts, in order to grow and produce a crop. Farmers use a variety of amendments, including commercial fertilizers, animal and green manures and composts to assure nutrient availability for crops.
Sound nutrient management not only assures optimum production but also reduces input costs and protects water quality. Additionally, soil tilth and organic matter can be improved by correct manure and sludge application. Input costs are reduced by preventing over-application of commercial fertilizers and manures, while also reducing the amount of nutrients lost to receiving waters. It has been proven that over-application of fertilizers serves no beneficial purpose to the crop. In fact, excess nitrogen fertilizer can be harmful to crop yield and quality.
Research has shown that nitrates are a leading ground water contaminant. Commercial fertilizer and manure are significant sources of nitrates in ground water, as well as nitrates and phosphates in surface waters. Careful management of nutrients will reduce the amount of nutrients available for transport from the field because they will be properly taken up by the plant or stored in the soil. Excess nutrients are lost with surface runoff, and by leaching through the soil into ground water. Erosion and sediment control practices are the primary mechanisms to control the transport of nutrients, especially phosphorus, that are attached to soil particles.
Nutrient Management Plans
A whole farm plan includes a comprehensive strategy for addressing nutrient input needs on the farm. It contains information on crop requirements, nutrient availability, proper timing and amount of application, and environmental considerations. When the source of the nutrients is not commercial fertilizer, it is important to determine the nutrient value and availability of those contributions. For example, the nitrogen contribution of any legume crop should be calculated and credited, and manures and composts should be tested for nutrient content.
Nutrient management includes the following core components:
a. farm and field maps showing acreage, soils, crops and water bodies
b. yield expectations
c. a summary of the nutrient planning resources available to the farmer, including:
1 soil tests results
2 nutrient analysis of manures and composts
3 nitrogen contribution to the soil from legumes (if applicable)
4 other significant nutrient sources
d. an evaluation of field limitations based on environmental considerations
e. establishing mix of nutrient sources and requirements
f. timing and application methods
g. equipment operation and calibration
Such a plan requires that farmers have a good understanding of crop requirements, soil types and sensitive areas on and near the farm, such as wetlands and shallow aquifers. Nutrient management incorporates this knowledge with a site-specific set of management practices to 1) apply nutrients at rates necessary to achieve realistic crop yields, 2) improve the timing of nutrient application, and 3) use agronomic crop production technology to increase nutrient use efficiency.
The following is a list of the BMPs that are recommended to reduce or eliminate water pollution from crop nutrients.
Best Management Practices for Nutrient Management
a. Agricultural Composting
The benefits of agricultural composting are many. Compost is an excellent soil conditioner which, when properly managed, is free of weed seeds.
Definition: the aerobic, biological decomposition of organic matter, including manure, leaves, bedding and crop residues. It is a natural process that can be enhanced and accelerated by: selecting organic waste "recipes" with proper carbon/nitrogen balance; mixing to provide proper aeration; and monitoring to assure that ideal moisture levels and temperatures are maintained. These extra steps provide optimal conditions for the microbes that transform "raw" on-farm wastes into a relatively stable soil amendment/crop nutrient.
Purpose: to conserve nutrients produced on the farm; to lower the risk of pollution by stabilizing nitrogen in an organic form, and reducing its loss to ground and surface water.
Initial Cost: low - high
Maintenance Cost: low to high
Technical Assistance: highly desirable for start-up.
Other Benefits: The benefits of agricultural composting are many. Compost is an excellent soil conditioner which, when properly managed, is free of weed seeds. Farmers can lower their risk of nuisance complaints about odor and flies. Compost is often easier to handle than manure. Farmers have the opportunity to create a product with significant economic value; many garden centers, suburban neighbors and landscapers are eager to purchase high quality farm compost.
Other Considerations: Most of the nutrients in agricultural compost are in a stable organic form and are released slowly to growing plants. Nutrient availability, timing, and rates of application need to be accounted for in the overall nutrient management plan. The compost "pad," or site where active composting will take place, should be carefully located and designed. A poorly situated pad, like a poorly situated manure stacking area, can contribute to pollution problems.
b. Filter Strips
Filter strips-strips of close growing vegetation along a water body-can reduce nutrients in runoff entering the water. They may also provide habitat for wildlife.
Definition: strips of close growing vegetation surrounding or along a water body.
Purpose: to reduce nutrients in runoff entering the water. The width of the vegetative strip will depend on soil characteristics, type of vegetation used, topography and hydrology.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for initial information
Other Benefits: see pesticide management; may provide wildlife habitat.
Other Considerations:
c. Conservation Crop Rotation
Definition: the successive planting of different crops in the same field -- the opposite of continuous cropping.
Purpose: one purpose of crop rotation is to reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizer by planting a legume. Also, continuous applications of manure can result in the build-up of excessive levels of phosphorus; crops in an unmanured part of the rotation may take up phosphorus, thereby reducing the potential for loss by run-off of excess phosphorus. Rotation is valuable for controlling soil erosion, building soil tilth, increasing yields and eliminating or reducing certain diseases or pests.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for start-up
Other Benefits: see erosion and sediment management; see pesticide management; may improve soil fertility.
Other Considerations:
d. Cover Cropping
Definition: the practice of planting a crop primarily for protecting and improving the soil between periods of regular crop production.
Purpose: regarding nutrient management, to provide nutrients for subsequent crops, thus reducing the total amount of additional nutrients necessary; to take up all the excess nutrients left in the field after the harvest of the main crop (called a "catch crop"); also, to utilize excess nutrients from the field, thus reducing the amount of nutrients that may leach to ground water. Annual cover crops are either harvested, plowed under, grazed or killed with herbicides before the primary crop is planted. Perennial cover crops, between trees and vines in orchards, for example, are left in place and managed by mowing.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: see erosion and sediment management; weed pest control.
Other Considerations:
e. Equipment Calibration
Proper and timely adjustment of equipment used to apply nutrients can minimize the chance of over-application of fertilizer and manure.
Definition: proper and timely adjustment of equipment used to apply nutrients.
Purpose: to minimize the chance of over-application of fertilizer and manure. Calibration insures that recommended rates are being applied.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for start-up
Other Benefits: this practice also applies to calibration of pesticide application equipment.
Other Considerations: should be done annually, and whenever fertilizer or pesticide is changed.
f. Fertilizer Storage, Handling and Containment
Definition: the management of fertilizer substances on the farm.
Purpose: to assure safety and prevent spills and leaks in which uncontrolled amounts of fertilizer might leach or run off into surface or ground water. Fertilizer storage areas, valves and containers should be secured when not in use. Dry fertilizer should be stored inside a structure or device capable of preventing it from getting wet. Liquid fertilizer should be stored in containers approved for and compatible with the fertilizer being stored. Fertilizer storage areas should be located away from wells, areas that are very porous, and any surface water bodies.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may improve health and safety.
Other Considerations: storage areas should be inspected annually to ensure safety.
g. Green Manure Cropping
Providing fertility through enriching the soil with naturally occurring amendments "feeds the soil, then the soil feeds the plant."
Definition: the practice of planting a grass or legume crop primarily to be plowed down for its contribution to soil fertility.
Purpose: to provide nutrient value to the subsequent crop.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: moisture retention; enhances soil tilth and organic matter; reduces soil salinity; may reduce need for purchased fertilizer.
Other Considerations: may increase costs (seed and labor); plowdown may provide excess nitrogen.
h. Intercropping
Intercropping-the growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field-adds nitrogen and other nutrients to the soil. Inter-cropping of certain crops is also intended to improve yields per acre and provide "crop insurance".
Definition: the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in a specific pattern or fashion on the same field.
Purpose: regarding nutrient management, the purpose of intercropping is to add nitrogen and other plant nutrients to the soil. Legumes and grass crops are often used. Seeding in of the second crop may be done at various stages of the main crop's development.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for start-up
Other Benefits: may reduce weeds.
Other Considerations: intercropping of certain crops is also intended to improve yields per acre and to provide "crop insurance" in case of a crop failure.
i. Nutrient Budgeting
Definition: evaluation of the contributions of all sources of nutrients to the needs of a particular crop.
Purpose: to encourage the use of manure and other agricultural wastes, and other nutrient-contributing practices (e.g., cover cropping, planting legumes) and to avoid application of excess nutrients. Nutrient budgeting accounts for the contributions of all sources of nutrients, so that additional commercial fertilizers and/or animal manures are only applied to make up a lack. Testing of manures, composts, effluents as well as green manure and legume contributions can be performed. Management that focuses on providing fertility through enriching the soil with naturally occurring amendments "feeds the soil, then the soil feeds the plant".
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required for start-up
Other Benefits: may reduce costs of purchased inputs; may promote recycling of on-farm wastes.
Other Considerations:
j. Nutrient Record Keeping
Definition: a system of documenting field, crop and nutrient application data.
Purpose: to provide historical and planning data in order to make informed decisions about nutrient applications that are resource-protecting and efficient. Record keeping is an important part of a nutrient management plan. Useful forms are available from technical assistance providers.
Initial Cost: none
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: helps to make efficient use of both manures and purchased inputs.
Other Considerations:
k. Plant Tissue Testing
Definition: a test that determines the nutritional status of plant tissues.
Purpose: to determine existing or potential nutrient problems. Plant tissue testing is an excellent tool for determining exact plant nutrient needs for many essential nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, sulfur and others. Though not routinely done on all crops, testing may help diagnose nutrient deficiencies.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
l. Proper Timing and Application Methods
Proper timing and application of fertilizers in environmentally sensitive ways can avoid runoff and maximize plant uptake.
Definition: a set of practices that addresses the application of nutrients in environmentally sensitive ways.
Purpose: to protect water resources by selecting the best fertilizer, properly timing and locating applications to avoid runoff and maximize plant uptake. Manure and fertilizer should not be applied on frozen ground; they should be incorporated immediately. Fertilizer nitrogen is best applied just before the period of maximum uptake by crops, and in amounts matching the ability of the crop to take it up. Application under rainy conditions or when soil is saturated should be avoided. Application to very shallow soils or to exposed bedrock also should be avoided. Sometimes split applications are effective. In selecting fertilizers, less leachable forms and slow release varieties are advantageous both for water protection and effectiveness. Banding, which is the application of fertilizer along the row, close to the plant, rather than broadcasting, is an effective method of crop fertilization that can reduce nutrient loss.
Initial Cost: none
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may enhance efficient use of fertilizers.
Other Considerations:
m. Soil Nitrate Testing
Definition: a test that determines the soil nitrate-nitrogen concentrations immediately prior to side- or top-dressing with nitrogen fertilizer.
Purpose: to avoid the application of excess nitrogen fertilizer by determining crop nitrogen needs.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: required (soil testing lab)
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: may reduce farm fertilizer and labor costs.
n. Soil Testing
Definition: determination of nutrient content of a soil sample by a laboratory.
Purpose: to avoid excessive use of nutrients while ensuring that the right amounts are applied for desired crop yield. At least one soil sample for each field and crop type should be tested for phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and soil pH, and any other nutrients of concern for the planned crop. Nitrogen application should not be based on a routine soil test prior to planting a crop; a special nitrogen soil test is needed during the growth of the crop. Soil tests should be updated on a regular basis, and before fertilizers are applied; results will change over time, depending on fertilizer and other additions, precipitation, runoff, leaching, erosion and crop uptake.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may yield economic savings from reduced fertilizer purchase.
Other Considerations:
o. Yield data
Definition: information about crop yields to determine realistic expectations.
Purpose: to manage nutrient applications to match realistic yield expectations. Yield data is based on yield history and other relevant information provided by the grower. For example, a farmer might average the three highest yields in five consecutive crop years. Information from Rutgers Cooperative Extension can be used when field data is not available. Increased yield expectations due to new and improved varieties and hybrids should be considered. Yield data will also depend on climatic conditions, available moisture and soil type.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
3. Strategies for Pest and Pesticide Management
The management of agricultural pests is a major concern to nearly every New Jersey farmer. Pests include insects, weeds, diseases, fungi and vertebrates (e.g., rodents) that can reduce if not destroy crop production. Agriculture has always been faced with the need to limit crop damage due to pests. Since the 1950s, petrochemical-based pesticides have become an important tool for farmers. Of course, pesticides are applied in non-agricultural settings as well, for example on home lawns, golf courses, roadsides and utility rights-of-way.
Wherever pesticides are used, there are concerns about potential impacts to water quality. Negative impacts to surface water bodies have been documented since the 1940's. More recently, studies have shown public and private water supply contamination from pesticides. Because of these and other concerns (e.g., the health and safety of the pesticide handler), pesticides and their application have become increasingly regulated, resulting in higher costs to the grower.
-- pesticide application: including the rate, formulation, timing and mode of application (e.g., foliar, injection, surface incorporation)
-- pesticide properties: including solubility, mobility, stability, and degradation
-- climate: including precipitation, temperature and wind
-- soil properties: including composition (% sand, clay and silt; soil organic matter), porosity, moisture content and pore size
-- site characteristics: including topography, slope, proximity to water resources
-- agricultural management practices: including tillage choices, mixing, loading and storage practices, cover cropping, irrigation/chemigation
Clearly, a goal of any pest management strategy is to reduce risks of contaminating surface and ground water. The basic concept of pest management in this regard is to encourage effective and safe use of pesticides, only when necessary, without causing environmental harm. The most effective approach is, first, to limit the amounts and types of pesticides (availability), and second, to use practices that minimize the movement (detachment, transport and deposition) of pesticides to surface and ground water.
Pest Management
The management of agricultural pests is a major concern to nearly every New Jersey farmer.
As with nutrient management (see page 33), the most effective approach for environmentally sensitive pest control is to develop and implement pest management plan. The goal of pest management is to reduce the impact of pests to tolerable levels. The plan focuses on the assessment of options based on site- and crop-specific data. Developing a whole farm plan that includes sound agricultural management practices for how, what, where and when to apply pesticides will help minimize the problems associated with pesticide use. Natural controls and non-chemical tactics should be emphasized wherever possible. A good plan will maintain a healthy crop with high yield and quality, while protecting water quality and other environmental interests.
At minimum, pest management includes:
-- an evaluation of past and current pest problems and cropping history
-- an evaluation of the physical and biological characteristics of the site
-- evaluation, selection and implementation of appropriate alternative pest management strategies
-- proper selection, application and timing of pesticide(s)
-- proper mixing, loading, and storage of pesticides
An integral component of pest management is the practice of integrated pest management (IPM). IPM is an approach aimed at reducing pesticide use to the minimum quantity while ensuring high quality crops and protecting human health and environmental quality. IPM includes the selection, integration and implementation of pest control methods based on predicted economic, ecological and sociological consequences. IPM includes the use of pesticides only when pest populations exceed economic thresholds (when making a decent return on the crop is threatened) and only when alternative control tactics are not appropriate or available. An IPM program strives to minimize crop losses by optimizing the use of cultural management techniques and biological pest controls.
A good pest management plan will emphasize natural controls and non-chemical tactics whenever possible, while maintaining a healthy crop with high yield and quality.
Typically, there are four components of an IPM system:
In New Jersey, IPM programs have reduced pesticide use on such crops as apples, strawberries, cranberries, corn, alfalfa, eggplant and potatoes.
-- pest identification: all potential pests as well as all beneficial insects are inventoried; particular species or varieties may require special treatment
-- monitoring: also known as scouting, the aim is to accurately sample and record pest populations and to identify the location and time where a pest problem may become intolerable
-- action thresholds: action thresholds and injury levels are established for each individual pest species. The action threshold is the level at which a control action must be taken in order to prevent damage
-- methods of prevention and suppression: include some combination of controls described below to manage pest populations
There are many options for suppressing pests, usually used in combination. These tactics may be grouped in the following categories:
-- biological controls
-- cultural controls (including host resistance)
-- physical and mechanical controls
-- chemical controls
IPM guidelines have been established for a number of field crops, fruits and vegetables in New Jersey. New guidelines for other crops are continually being developed. Nonetheless, certain integrated pest management strategies can be successfully employed in a wide variety of situations, even without a certified program in place. Plans may be developed by the producer or by a private crop consultant who may be employed to help develop and implement the plan.
Once pest management has been developed, a variety of best management practices can be employed to implement aspects of the plan. Some plans may include particular IPM strategies that are included in the best management practices that follow. Best management practices that comprise elements of an IPM Program are included below.
The following is a list of the BMPs that are recommended to reduce water pollution from pesticide storage and use.
Best Management Practices for Pest and Pesticide Management
a. Appropriate Biological Controls
Appropriate biological controls include the use of natural predators to help keep pest populations in check.
Definition: use of natural enemies, including predators, parasites and diseases to help keep pest populations in check.
Purpose: to reduce or eliminate pests by introducing biological control agents that may not be native to the area, or not present in sufficient quantities, into the environment. For example, beneficial mites are commercially available and can be released in the field. These must be introduced before pest numbers are out of control, and periodic re-releases are usually needed. These agents include parasites, predators or disease pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required for initial information and start-up
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
b. Appropriate Cultural Controls
Definition: use of various farming practices that impact pest populations.
Purpose: to destroy or remove a pest's habitat by such practices as plowing, crop rotation, manipulation of planting and harvest dates, animal housing sanitation and manure management, and tillage. For example, alfalfa fields with significant numbers of alfalfa weevils may be harvested early to avoid further losses and reduce weevil populations. Crop rotation can be extremely effective in breaking up pest life cycles (e.g. the Colorado potato beetle). Various methods can be employed to destroy breeding refuges and over-wintering sites, including escaped apple trees for apple maggot. Included in this category are all practices that provide optimum growing conditions for the crop, thereby enhancing plant health and resistance and reducing plant stress. There is a wide range of cultural controls. Not all of them are appropriate on all farms, and farmers need to select carefully.
Examples of cultural controls include the following:
-- site selection: choosing sites that are less favorable to pests
-- cultivar selection: choosing varieties that are resistant to pests
-- crop rotation: rotating away from crops of the same family can prevent weed growth and break up pest cycles
-- intercropping: planting a mixture of crops may reduce insect damage, e.g., underseeding broccoli with clover
-- cover cropping: can provide shelter for beneficials
-- trap cropping: planting crops to attract the pest away from the main crop; for example in tomatoes, trap crops of potatoes and eggplant can be used for Colorado potato beetle
-- tillage: provides weed control and may kill some insects and pathogens
-- timing and method of planting: may help to avoid a generation of the pest
-- sanitation: removal of pest habitat such as cull piles or dropped fruit; for example, potato cull piles provide a place for potato late blight and other diseases to overwinter
-- pruning: removes a food source or point for infection and increases circulation
-- healthy seed and transplants: avoids introducing pests; use of seed that has been certified disease-free
Initial Costs: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required - desirable
Other Benefits: certain cultural control practices may also improve soil tilth and fertility.
Other Considerations:
c. Appropriate Physical Controls
Definition: use of physical structures or mechanisms to exclude pests from crops.
Purpose: to prevent or reduce crop losses from pest damage by providing physical barriers such as netting over small fruits and screening in greenhouses or milkhouses. Row covers and fencing are also examples.
Initial Cost: low - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
d. Calibrate and Maintain Pesticide Application Equipment
Properly calibrating pesticide application equipment assures proper application rates throughout the season, reducing both pesticide waste and the risk of environmental contamination.
Definition: adjustment of application equipment by properly calibrating applicator nozzles; general maintenance of equipment parts.
Purpose: to assure proper pesticide application rates throughout the season. Such calibration should occur minimally at the beginning and middle of each season; ideally, each time pesticides or application rates are changed. Improper calibration of application equipment can result in application rates that are significantly different from the intended rate. Low applications can result in poor pest control, yield losses and costly repeat applications. Rates which are too high waste pesticide, reduce profitability and pose a greater risk of environmental contamination than necessary. Higher than recommended application rates also promote the development of pest resistance to the pesticide, do not achieve better pest control and may result in poor pest control. Since nozzle wear can increase application rates and change spray patterns, calibration rates should be checked during the spray season. Even small, hand operated applicators, such as hand-pump sprayers, should be calibrated each season. Sprayer equipment should be maintained regularly.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for initial information
Other Benefits: lower costs due to less pesticide use.
Other Considerations:
e. Data Collection
Data collection allows farmers to make informed pest management decisions based on knowledge of cropping patterns, current and historical pest problems, pesticide use and soil and physical characteristics of the site.
Definition: inventory of field, crop and pest information.
Purpose: to make informed pest management decisions based on knowledge of cropping patterns, current and historical pest problems, pesticide use and soil and physical characteristics of the site. Attention should be paid to the history of crop production, information on soil types, exact acreages of each field, and information about past pest problems, pesticide use and other information for each field. Additionally, particular attention should be directed to areas where mixing, loading and storage activities take place, and physical limitations such as proximity to well heads and surface water, runoff potential, highly permeable or poorly drained soils, and shallow aquifers.
Initial Cost: none
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may enhance efficiency and reduce cost
Other Considerations:
f. Pesticide Application Plans and Records
Definition: a procedure for planning and documenting pesticide use that includes specific pesticide selection, application and handling.
Purpose: to assure the proper selection, timing and rates of application to maximize effective and judicious use of pesticides while minimizing unnecessary, excessive or inappropriate uses. Pesticides that are least likely to cause contamination to surface or ground water should be selected. Available models such as NPURG can assist in determining relative risk from a pesticide given crop, soil, water and topographic conditions. If an evaluation indicates a high risk, consideration of slope, foliar coverage and other risk reducing site factors or management practices such as spot spraying or banding will help. Such plans should also account for proper timing of applications. Replace calendar date scheduled applications with crop, pest and weather specific timing to increase effectiveness and reduce risk as well as waste (from, for example, application before a heavy rain or during windy conditions). Record keeping is an important component of any pesticide use, as well as a legal requirement. Knowing what went on which field and how successful it was in obtaining desired results is useful planning data.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable for start-up
Other Benefits: may enhance wildlife habitat; may contribute to farmer health and safety
Other Considerations:
g. Protect and Enhance Natural Controls
Definition: The encouragement of naturally-occurring populations of biological control agents such as beneficial mites and certain fungi, worms and wasps.
Purpose: to allow natural controls to contribute to pest management by fostering and not destroying their habitat. Natural enemies can be encouraged by providing shelters or food sources. For example, a sod or weedy cover in an apple orchard provides an overwintering site for predatory mites, which control European red mite and two-spotted spider mite. Selecting pesticides that have minimal effect on beneficials is an important consideration; applying only when needed, and carefully scheduling to have the least effect on beneficials, will also encourage native populations of many biological control organisms.
Initial Cost: none
Maintenance Cost: not applicable
Technical Assistance: desirable for initial information
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: other management practices, such as burning or mowing of field edges, may diminish beneficial populations.
h. Safe Storage, Mixing, Loading and Disposal of Pesticides
Proper storage and handling of pesticides avoids contamination risks associated with accidental spills and misuse of pesticides.
Definition: specific management activities for the proper storage and handling of all pesticides.
Purpose: to avoid contamination risks associated with accidental spills and misuse of pesticides. Surface water, ground water and soil can be contaminated in areas where pesticides are stored under inappropriate conditions, or improperly mixed and loaded into application tanks, where equipment is washed and rinsed after application, and where containers are disposed of improperly. Pesticides should be stored in the original containers with the label intact, in a closed and locked building. Such containers should be recycled where possible. The building should be located at least 200 feet down-gradient from any surface water body and 150 feet down-gradient from any wellhead. A secondary containment area, such as a curbed, impermeable pad, is recommended to contain any accidental spills or leaks.
Chemical mixing and storing and equipment rinsing stations should be located at least 300 feet away from aquifer and wellhead areas and open water. Backflow prevention devices should be installed and operating properly. Proper warning signs must be posted, and use of an impervious pad to contain spills and facilitate clean-up is desirable. Of course, such materials should be locked and out of reach of children and animals. Mixing and loading areas should be located to minimize the impact of spills. All transfer of pesticides between containers should be conducted over a spill containment surface designed to intercept, retain and recover spills, leaks and wash water. This can be a specially constructed pad or alternate system such as a portable basin.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low - medium
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may reduce human health and safety risks, may reduce future liability risks
Other Considerations:
i. Scout for Pests
Scouting for pests provides an early detection system that locates and identifies potentially serious pest situations before economic losses occur.
Definition: crop monitoring for presence of pests.
Purpose: to accurately sample and record pest populations and to recommend and track control actions based on scouting data. Determining how many pests are present on a crop at a point in time requires that the crop be monitored on a regular schedule. Scouting usually involves visual plant or animal inspections and/or environmental monitoring. Scouting provides an early detection system that locates and identifies potentially serious pest situations before economic losses occur. Used with pest action thresholds, it also helps to avoid unnecessary pesticide applications. Samples are collected according to certain protocols. Often, scouting is done by agribusinesses or private consultants.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low - medium
Technical Assistance: desirable for initial information
Other Benefits: may result in higher quality crop
Other Considerations: a consultant may be hired to perform this function and provide pest management advice.
j. Special Handling of Sensitive Areas
Special handling of sensitive areas involves reducing or eliminating pesticide applications to wet spots, stream sides and areas near well heads.
Definition: with respect to pesticide application, particular attention to and appropriate management of areas such as wet spots, stream sides and areas near well heads; may include avoiding application entirely.
Purpose: to reduce risk of contamination by identifying sensitive areas and reducing or eliminating pesticide applications there. Use of a map locating such areas is helpful, making sure that the applicator is aware of such locations and any specific requirements. New Jersey Department of Agriculture has useful fact sheets about applying high risk pesticides in high risk areas.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: these sensitive areas should be treated with special handling when applying nutrients also, to avoid leaching of nutrients, especially nitrates, into ground water
4. Strategies for Livestock Barnyard, Manure and Waste Management
Concerns about potential contamination of surface and ground water from livestock focus on two components of farm animal management. The first is on areas or structures where animals are stabled or held and fed or maintained, plus areas used for processing and storage of product (such as feed), manure, facility wastewater (e.g., milkhouse waste, barn and pen cleaning water, animal washing) and other related runoff. These areas are typically centered around the barnyard and are sometimes referred to as "confined animal facilities". The second is on animal grazing areas, particularly riparian, or stream-side zones (see Section 5, below).
Pollutants from confined animal facilities include nutrients, salts, pathogens and organic solids from manure and bedding. Phosphorus is a concern from milkhouse cleaning. Milk itself, if it gets into a stream and decomposes, uses up oxygen, and bacteria growing in milk transmit diseases downstream. Surface waters can be seriously impacted, causing fish kills, anaerobic conditions, eutrophication and unsuitability for drinking, fishing or swimming. Ground water can be contaminated by nutrients and salts from manure storage areas and related runoff seeping into the ground. Silage wastes are extremely concentrated and can be toxic to plant and animal life if discharged directly. Water running from up-slope through a confined animal facility, as well as rain and snow from roofs, increases the volume of facility runoff.
While most livestock manures are applied to cropland, improperly stored or handled manure can pose a direct threat to water resources. Direct runoff from manure stockpiles, leaking or overflowing storage units and barnyards can contribute nutrients (and pathogens; see below) directly into sensitive areas.
Some common disposal practices not only threaten groundwater but also may be illegal.
It has become commonplace to think of manure as a "waste". Regarding manures as valuable and cost-saving resources that contribute to farm fertility, rather than as a waste, may lead to improved handling and utilization. As a resource, manures applied to cropland add nutrients and organic matter to soils. But over-application of manures can contribute to water pollution because excess nutrients that are not taken up by the crop leach or runoff. So "waste management" and "nutrient management" are companions in a comprehensive management system and whole farm plan.
As with pest management and nutrient management above, developing a waste management system is the recommended first step. Such a system will address limiting discharges from confined animal facilities by identifying appropriate systems that collect solids, reduce contaminant concentration and reduce runoff. The system will also address management of stored runoff and accumulated solids by identifying an appropriate waste utilization system. Utilizing wastes to the fullest extent possible is a prudent waste management strategy as well as a potentially effective and cost-efficient nutrient management strategy. A good waste management system will include management practices for storage, handling, treatment and disposal of manure and other agricultural wastes. The aim is to minimize the potential impact of the manure-associated pollutants in both ground and surface waters. A waste management system may consist of one or more components, appropriately suited to the particular operation.
Cost effectiveness is a major concern when choosing appropriate waste management practices for a farm. Livestock operations of all sizes may need to or choose to install storage structures, which can be a costly component of a livestock enterprise. There are numerous manure storage systems available; the choice of the system will depend on the location, type and size of the farm operation, available sites and equipment, and economics.
Consider the variety of products commonly used in households and on farms: paints, solvents, oils, cleaners, wood preservatives, batteries, adhesives and pesticides. In addition, some common disposal practices not only threaten groundwater but also may be illegal.
Small, unusable amounts often wind up spilled, buried, dumped or flushed onto farm property. Minimizing the amounts of these substances used on the farm, along with practicing proper disposal practices, can reduce both health risks and the potential for groundwater contamination. Farmers and their families are generally familiar with the hazards of pesticides commonly used in the farm operation, but they may be less aware of the hazards of other chemicals that make many tasks around the home and farm easier or more efficient.
Improper use of hazardous products may cause toxic health effects. Improper storage may allow chemicals to leak, causing potentially dangerous chemical reactions, toxic health effects or groundwater contamination. Improper disposal allows these dangerous chemicals to enter directly into drinking water through surface water or groundwater.
Your drinking water is least likely to be contaminated by your hazardous wastes if you follow appropriate management procedures or dispose of wastes in any location that is off your farm site. However, proper offsite disposal practices are essential to avoid risking contamination that could affect the water supplies and health of others.
The following is a list of the BMPs that are recommended to reduce or eliminate water pollution from barnyards, manures and wastes.
Best Management Practices for Barnyard, Manure and Waste Management
A good waste management plan will include management practices for storage, handling, treatment and disposal of agricultural wastes.
a. Combined Waste Facility(s)
Definition: a structure or system for handling more than one type of waste.
Purpose: to meet environmental protection needs by maximizing efficient waste facility design. For example, milkhouse waste may be added to liquid manure or manure run-off storages that already exist. If a facility is being constructed to handle multiple storages, it must be designed to handle the total volume. Milkhouse wash water will dilute manure which makes it easier to pump. Silage leachate also may be combined with other wastes and manures.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: federal cost share may be available
b. Diversion(s) - grass or other
Definition: a drainageway constructed across a slope to divert surface runoff.
Purpose: to divert water away from barnyard, bunker silage storage areas and other heavy use areas, preventing excessive runoff from carrying organic wastes, sediments and other pollutants to surface water bodies.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may facilitate barnyard maintenance by reducing surface water
Other Considerations: will require periodic maintenance to remove debris and assure stability.
c. Filter Strip
Filter strips are areas of vegetation for removing sediment, organic matter and other contaminants from runoff and wastewater.
Definition: a strip or area of vegetation for removing sediment, organic matter and other contaminants from runoff and wastewater.
Purpose: to trap organic materials from concentrated livestock areas by trapping them in the vegetative material of the filter strip. Properly located filter strips may also filter pollutants from controlled overland flow treatment of liquid wastes. Filter strips must be managed and maintained. Saturated filter strips will not function properly.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: may provide wildlife and/or beneficials habitat
Other Considerations: will require maintenance.
d. Heavy Use Area Protection(s)
Definition: installation of semi-impervious or hard impervious surfaces in heavily used areas.
Purpose: to prevent degradation and to stabilize areas intensely used by livestock, and to allow for collection, management, and utilization of animal wastes, thereby reducing migration of contaminants to surface water bodies. Grading and surfacing of heavily used areas helps protect them from erosion, trampling, rutting or other deterioration, and helps prevent the collection of pollutants. Concrete or asphalt paving will be necessary if runoff is to be collected for treatment. Compacted gravel or other earth materials may otherwise be sufficient to stabilize the ground surface. Drainage and runoff control devices and filter strips may be components of heavy use area protection.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
e. Manure Composting
Manure composting prevents water contamination by biologically treating organic wastes. The by-product of this process is a safe-to-use soil amendment.
Definition: the process of controlled and accelerated aerobic biodegradation and stabilization of livestock manures. (See also, Agricultural Composting, under Nutrient Management)
Purpose: to prevent water contamination by biologically treating organic wastes. The by-product of this process is a safe-to-use soil amendment. Composting stabilizes nutrients and reduces pathogens, making them less likely to leach into surface or ground water. Active composting usually takes place in windrows, static aerated piles or in-vessel structures. Passive "composting", with no active effort to manage or monitor the process, is not an effective or acceptable technique for managing organic wastes high in nitrogen. Successful composting requires careful attention to: site selection and design, selection and carbon:nitrogen ratio of ingredients, moisture, temperature, timing, proper equipment and management.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance:required
Other Benefits: compost may be used on farm as a soil amendment/crop nutrient or sold commercially.
Other Considerations: needs careful management; there may be odor concerns; there may be regulatory considerations.
f. Manure Storage Facility(s)
Definition: a permanent, constructed structure for temporary storage of animal manures or other organic agricultural by-products.
Purpose: to reduce contaminant loading to surface waters by intercepting and storing polluted runoff from manure stacking areas, barnyards and feedlots. Such structures may be earthen impoundments (ponds), tanks or other facilities constructed of concrete, wood, steel, plastic or other materials. Tanks are used for liquid and slurry wastes and can be open or covered, inside or outside or beneath slotted floors. Stacking facilities are used for solids and may be open or roofed.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: federal cost share may be available.
g. Manure Storage Field Stacking Area
Manure storage facilities reduce contaminant loading to surface water by intercepting and storing polluted runoff from manure stacking areas, barnyards and feedlots.
Definition: a temporary stacking area for solid manures located in a field.
Purpose: to temporarily stockpile manure for at most six months in a location where ground and surface water will be least threatened by contamination. As a component of a waste management plan, such an area is not a substitute for a manure storage structure, but may supplement the storage volume of such a structure. A stacking area allows temporary storage, when weather or field conditions may prevent daily field application, or when waiting to spread until after crop harvest. A well designed, located and managed stacking area may help in the timely application of stored manures, thereby reducing water quality impacts; a poorly designed, sited or maintained area may cause increased water quality problems.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable; may be necessary for establishment
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: site must be carefully selected to avoid negative impacts to ground water, wetlands and other sensitive areas, and to avoid odor problems with neighbors.
h. Plan for Manure and Waste Utilization
Using animal manures or other appropriate by-products on land in an environmentally acceptable manner; maintains and improves soil and plant resources.
Definition: using animal manures or other appropriate by-products on land in an environmentally acceptable manner while maintaining or improving soil and plant resources.
Purpose: to reduce transport of sediment and other pollutants to surface waters by applying wastes to fields where they may be incorporated, allowing crops to use nutrients that might otherwise contaminate ground water. As an essential part of a manure management plan, a waste utilization plan needs to be coordinated with a nutrient management plan that determines the amount, form, placement and timing of waste applications to meet agronomic needs. Technical assistance is useful to evaluate field and other conditions to maximize utilization without compromising water quality.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
i. Roof Runoff Management(s)
Definition: a facility for collecting, controlling and disposing of runoff water from roofs.
Purpose: to prevent roof runoff water from flowing into or across concentrated waste areas, barnyards, livestock or equipment laneways or other areas where clean roof runoff could wash contaminants into surface or ground waters. Such facilities include erosion-resistant channels or subsurface drains installed along building foundations below eaves, and roof gutters and downspouts.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may contribute to animal health and safety
Other Considerations:
j. Sediment Basin(s)
Definition: a depression constructed to collect and store polluted runoff.
Purpose: to slow runoff that may contain animal manures. The basin may be dug or constructed as an earthen embankment. It allows solids to settle before runoff is discharged.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may control erosion and sediment; may enhance nutrient management
Other Considerations: basin will need periodic cleaning or dredging.
k. Silage Leachate Waste Management
Silage leachate may be land applied, alone in diluted form or mixed with manure or other wastes according to a waste utilization plan and a nutrient management plan, paying particular attention to application rates.
Definition: a planned system for collection, storage and disposal of silage wastes in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Purpose: to collect, store and dispose of silage leachate in a manner that minimizes threats to water resources. Silage leachate is an extremely strong organic waste, using up tremendous amounts of oxygen if released into water bodies or into the soil. The best strategy is to prevent or minimize the formation of silage leachate and to safely store and dispose of if any generated. Proper siting and sizing of silage facilities is the first step. Practices such as harvesting the silage at a moisture content that will not result in excessive silage leachate production, covering the silage pile to eliminate rain infiltration, and installing drains and/or diversions to separate ground water and surface water runoff from the ensiled forage are also important. A properly designed waste collection and storage system may combine silage leachate with other agricultural wastes. Leachate may be land applied, alone in diluted form, or mixed with manure or other wastes according to a waste utilization plan and a nutrient management plan, paying particular attention to application rates.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium - high
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: may have nutrient value as soil amendment
Other Considerations: federal cost share may be available.
l. Wastewater Treatment System(s)
Definition: a planned system for biological treatment of wastewater generated in milkhouses, typically consisting of a settling tank, distribution system and treatment system.
Purpose: to reduce threats to water quality by biologically treating organic milkhouse waste. In situations where milkhouse waste is not combined with liquid manures, biological systems for treatment will reduce the amount of suspended solids, biological oxygen demand and dissolved nitrogen that may enter the water table. Such systems are not designed to include waste milk or sewage. An underground treatment system is similar to a traditional septic system. In suitable soils, organic matter treatment beds function like leach fields, using organic matter to absorb the waste.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations: regular maintenance is required; discharging milkhouse wastes into a municipal sewer should be considered; this practice may not be effective in treating the cleaning agents used to disinfect the milking system; availability and disposal of organic bedding material must be considered.
m. Petroleum Product Storage Facility
Definition: a permanent above ground structure for the storage of petroleum products for use in farm machinery.
Purpose: to reduce contaminant loading to surface and groundwater by preventing spills and leakage. Such structures should be made of non-corrosive materials located above ground so they can be periodically examined for leakage.
Initial Cost: High
Maintenance Cost: Low
Technical Assistance: desirable for siting
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
n. Hazardous & Household Waste Management
Definition: proper use and disposal of toxic or pathogenic products as a result of domestic use around the farmstead. This includes but is not limited to sewage, paint, solvents, cleaners, preservatives, batteries, adhesives.
Purpose: to reduce the use and encourage the proper disposal of hazardous wastes. Small amounts of these materials can be hazardous to your health especially when found in the drinking water. Proper management can reduce the potential for toxic effects.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: proper use of chemicals can save money
Other Considerations: small amounts of toxic materials can be deadly to humans and animals.
5. Strategies for Livestock Grazing Management
Water quality concerns related to livestock grazing focus on potential impacts to sensitive areas such as streambanks, wetlands, estuaries, ponds and lakeshores. Sensitive areas also include the riparian zone, an extremely diverse and vital vegetated ecosystem along a water body.
Impacts to ground water, surface water bodies and the riparian zone include sedimentation, and the introduction of nutrients, pathogens and organic solids. Healthy riparian and wetland ecosystems rely, in part, on good management of the immediate areas as well as upland areas. Careful selection of grazing management systems, controlled access and vegetative stabilization practices all should be considered in the development of a grazing and pasture management plan.
A grazing management system needs to accommodate the demands of vegetation, terrain and type of livestock operation. A well-designed system supplies and improves grazing lands and facilities, develops appropriate water sources, and protects streamsides and other sensitive water resources. Well-managed pastures are stable, with suitable plantings and minimal erosion. Uncontrolled access to streams and ponds for watering may seem economical and convenient, but cost-efficient alternatives that avoid negative water quality impacts are available. Pasturing systems (for example, rotational grazing) can be designed to maximize forage opportunities while minimizing stresses on land and water systems.
The following is a list of the BMPs that are recommended to reduce or eliminate water pollution from livestock grazing.
Water quality concerns related to livestock grazing focus on potential impacts to sensitive areas such as streambanks, wetlands, estuaries, ponds, and lake shores.
Best Management Practices for Livestock Grazing Management
a. Alternative Water Supply(s)
Definition: several options for livestock watering that keep animals away from streambanks and riparian zones.
Purpose: to protect streambanks, wetlands and riparian zones from adverse impacts from livestock trampling and waste. For example, a pipeline may be installed to convey water to an upland area. A livestock pond can be excavated or constructed with a dam or embankment. A trough or tank, with devices for water control and wastewater disposal may be installed. This practice may encourage better distribution of livestock over the pasture and grazing may be better controlled. In some cases, the development of a well or spring is a positive alternative.
Initial Cost: low - high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
b. Fencing(s)
Fencing keeps animals from riparian zones and other sensitive water resources, preventing wastes from entering water bodies.
Definition: enclosing or dividing an area of land with a suitable structure that acts as a barrier to livestock.
Purpose: to keep animals from riparian zones and other sensitive water resources, to prevent wastes from entering water bodies, streambank degradation, compaction of soils and loss of vegetation in riparian zones. As part of a grazing management plan, location of fencing should take into account the fact that fencing can have the effect of concentrating animals in particular areas, such as along the fence line, where paths may become channels that concentrate and accelerate runoff. Some fencing, when installed across the slope, can serve to slow down runoff. Exclusion fencing may be accompanied by installation of properly designed and located livestock crossing across streams.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: prevention of livestock access to some areas can preserve desirable habitat and plant species.
Other Considerations: Fencing must be installed properly using appropriate materials to be effective.
c. Pasture Management
Definition: proper treatment and use of pastureland.
Purpose: to minimize adverse impacts to ground and surface water by maintaining or improving the quality and quantity of forage, protecting the soil, conserving water and optimizing the use of fertilizers and pesticides on pasture. Practices include postponing grazing or resting grazing land for a prescribed period, which protects pasture areas with bare ground or little ground cover from eroding. Proper pastureland management will minimize movement of sediments from exposed soils and nutrients from manures to ground and nearby surface waters. As vegetative cover increases, the filtering processes are enhanced, trapping more silt and nutrients. Early spring grazing on wet and soft soils should be avoided. Soil testing and proper application of lime, manures and other nutrients are key to healthy pasture management.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: may enhance crop health and vigor
Other Considerations:
d. Plan for Proper Grazing
A plan for proper grazing reduces transport of sediments and other pollutants from grazed areas by assuring a healthy and stable vegetative cover.
Definition: A plan for grazing at an intensity that will maintain enough cover to protect the soil and maintain or improve the quantity and quality of desirable vegetation.
Purpose: to reduce transport of sediments and other pollutants from grazed areas by assuring a healthy and stable vegetative cover. Overgrazed pastures result in poor plant cover and plant health, and exposed soils. Deferred grazing and rotational grazing are two practices that encourage proper grazing intensity. Pasturing animals in woodlands should be limited to areas that produce a significant amount of forage that can be harvested without damaging other forest values or creating negative impacts to ground or surface water quality. Wooded areas should be grazed at a rate that maintains adequate cover for soil protection and maintains or enhances the quantity and quality of trees and forage vegetation.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: optimum livestock health; improved forage production and quality
Other Considerations: grazing areas may be restricted by eliminating wooded and/or wet areas.
e. Prescribed Grazing (Planned Grazing System)
Definition: a practice in which two or more grazing units are alternately rested and grazed in a planned sequence.
Purpose: to decrease movement of sediments, nutrients and other substances into downstream waters by increasing the quality and quantity of vegetation in grazed areas. With a planned grazing system (e.g., the "Voisin" method, or intensive rotational grazing) livestock spend less time in each pasture or section of pasture. The vegetation helps trap manure.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: medium (for management time)
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: may yield economic savings; may increase grazing efficiency; may increase and improve quality and production of forage (including season extension); may improve flexibility in a grazing program; grass-based livestock management may decrease manure handling, decrease fertilizer use, require less machinery; may enhance wildlife habitat
Other Considerations: requires increased management; requires supplying livestock water.
f. Riparian Buffer
Definition: an established area of vegetation located next to and up-gradient of water courses, water bodies and associated wetlands.
Purpose: to maintain or improve surface water quality by removing or buffering the effects of sediment, nutrients, organic matter and some pesticides. As a grazing practice, it is most applicable in areas downslope from pastures. Management practices include protecting or establishing vegetation, installing an up-gradient filter strip, installing livestock exclusion fencing, excluding heavy equipment, and designing and installing proper livestock access and crossings. Buffer width varies depending on soil type and vegetative cover; 35 feet is considered minimum. If possible, native species should be planted/encouraged and fertilizers and pesticides should not be used.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: may enhance streambank stabilization; may improve wildlife and aquatic habitat (see also, nutrient management, pest management and erosion and sediment control)
Other Considerations: may reduce amount of active grazing land; may limit livestock access to water or shade.
g. Stream Crossing
Definition: a stabilized area to provide access across a stream for livestock; may be used for farm machinery.
Purpose: to avoid degradation of streams and streambanks from animal trampling and wastes. Properly designed and installed stream crossings minimize bank and streambed erosion, reduce sediment and enhance water quality. A crossing might be graded and stoned or might consist of a constructed bridge or a culvert.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: some stream crossings may enhance wildlife habitat
Other Considerations: may require wetlands permit.
h. Vegetative Stabilization
Vegetative stabilization practices which improve or reestablish vegetative cover on pastures reduce erosion into water bodies.
Definition: practices designed to improve or reestablish vegetative cover on pastures.
Purpose: to reduce erosion into water bodies. Such practices include seeding or reseeding stands of adapted forage species, planting vegetation such as grasses, shrubs or trees on highly erodible or critically eroding areas, brush and weed management and prescribed burning.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: desirable
Other Benefits: may enhance habitat
Other Considerations:
6. Strategies for Irrigation Management
While cranberry producers are the most significant users of irrigation water in New Jersey, other growers irrigate vegetable, fruit, nursery, greenhouse and other specialty crops. While New Jersey typically is blessed with abundant rainfall, irrigation is occasionally necessary. Chemigation, the practice of applying fertilizers and/or pesticides to crops through irrigation systems, is also used by some farmers.
The concern associated with irrigation is the potential movement of pollutants such as sediments, organic solids, pesticides, metals, microbial organisms, salts and nutrients from the land into ground and surface waters. Ground water is particularly vulnerable where coarse textured soils allow high infiltration.
Proper irrigation management will help minimize discharge of pollutants while also reducing water waste and improving water use efficiency. An irrigation management plan will include components that address irrigation scheduling practices, efficient application, proper utilization of tailwater, drainage and runoff, and backflow prevention. The first step in such a plan is the development of a water budget and water balance for the crop to be irrigated. Technical assistance may be required for these calculations.
The following is a list of the BMPs that are recommended to reduce or eliminate water pollution from crop irrigation.
Best Management Practices for Irrigation
a. Backflow Prevention(s)
A backflow prevention system prevents chemical backflow to the water source during chemigation.
Definition: a system to prevent chemical backflow to the water source during chemigation.
Purpose: to prevent contamination of a water source by installing devices that prevent chemicals from entering the irrigation water source in cases when the irrigation pump shuts down. There are several different systems used as backflow preventers such as an air gap, a check valve with vacuum relief and low pressure drain, a double check valve, a reduced pressure principal backflow preventer and an atmospheric vacuum breaker. Factors to consider when selecting a backflow prevention system are the characteristics of the chemical that can backflow, the water source and the geometry of the irrigation system.
Initial Cost: low - medium
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
b. Efficient Irrigation System
A planned system of crop irrigation has as its goal the efficient use of water resources. Systems will vary with the type of crop grown, the soils and the topography.
Definition: a planned system of crop irrigation that has as one goal the efficient use of water resources. Systems will vary with the type of crop grown, the soils and the topography.
Purpose: to ensure efficient use and distribution, minimize runoff or deep percolation and eliminate soil erosion. Several kinds of systems, properly designed and operated, can be used. Drip or trickle irrigation is a system in which all necessary facilities are installed for efficiently applying water directly to the root zone of plants by means of applicators (e.g. porous tubing or perforated pipe) operated under low pressure. A typical trickle system has a mainline with a control head, leading to laterals placed in the field. Runoff is reduced in this system, but potential hazards to shallow ground water exist if chemigation is used.
A sprinkler irrigation system applies water by means of perforated pipes or nozzles operated above ground, under pressure. Proper management of such a system controls runoff and prevents negative impacts to downstream surface waters. Chemigation with this system allows management of nutrients, wastewater and pesticides, but poor management may cause pollution of surface and ground water. Surface and subsurface irrigation systems deliver water by surface means, such as furrows, borders, contour levees or ditches, or by subsurface means. Proper management of such systems will prevent downstream pollution associated with runoff and percolation, including elevated temperatures of receiving waters.
Initial Cost: medium - high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: conserves water; enhances efficient delivery of fertilizer and/or pesticides (known as "fertigation")
Other Considerations:
c. Irrigation Water Management
Definition: determining and controlling the rate, amount and timing of irrigation water in a planned and efficient manner.
Purpose: to minimize the loss of dissolved substances and sediments from the irrigation system to surface or ground water. Effective use of available irrigation water will promote the desired crop response, control water loss and protect water quality. An irrigation management plan will take into account the various and complex factors that need to be considered. The grower must know how to determine when irrigation water should be applied and how to measure or estimate the amount of water required for each irrigation. Proper scheduling requires consideration of factors such as soil properties, type of crop, its drought sensitivity and status of crop stress, stage of crop development, availability of a water supply and climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature. Proper irrigation also requires the ability to make necessary adjustments to the water stream, rate and time, and management of irrigation runoff.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: required
Other Benefits: conserves water
Other Considerations:
d. Tailwater Recovery System(s)
A tailwater recovery system collects, stores and transports irrigation tailwater for reuse in the farm irrigation distribution system.
Definition: a facility to collect, store and transport irrigation tailwater for reuse in the farm irrigation distribution system.
Purpose: to increase water efficiency and reduce potential for contamination by recovering irrigation water for reuse in irrigation or for proper disposal. Using runoff water to provide additional irrigation or to reduce the amount of water diverted increases the efficiency of irrigation water use. In a tailwater recovery facility, sediments and substances attached to them (e.g. salts, metals, soluble nutrients and pesticides) are trapped, thereby decreasing downstream impacts to water quality. Recovered water with high salt or metal content will have to be disposed of in an environmentally safe manner and location.
Initial Cost: high
Maintenance Cost: medium
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits:
Other Considerations:
e. Water-measuring Device(s)
Definition: an irrigation water meter, flume, weir or other water-measuring device installed in a pipeline or ditch.
Purpose: to measure the rate of flow and/or application of water and the total amount of water applied to the field with each irrigation. Such information can assist the grower in maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of irrigation scheduling and equipment and provide data with which to consider modifications.
Initial Cost: low
Maintenance Cost: low
Technical Assistance: not required
Other Benefits: conserves water
Other Considerations:
