Code of Maine Rules
02 - DEPARTMENT OF PROFESSIONAL AND FINANCIAL REGULATION
396 - BOARD OF LICENSURE OF PODIATRIC MEDICINE
Chapter 21 - USE OF CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES FOR TREATMENT OF PAIN
Section 396-21-1 - PURPOSE
The Boards are obligated under the laws of the State of Maine to protect the public health and safety. The Boards recognize that medical and advanced nursing practice dictate that the people of the State of Maine have access to appropriate, empatheticand effective pain management. The application of up-to-date knowledge and treatment modalities can help restore function and thus improve the quality of life of patients who suffer from pain, especially chronic pain.
The Boards recognize that controlled substances, including opioid analgesics, may be essential in the treatment of acute and chronic pain, whether due to cancer or non-cancer origins. However, the Boards are also aware that the inappropriate prescribing of controlled substances poses a threat to the patient and society, and may lead to drug diversion and abuse by individuals who seek them for other than legitimate medical uses. Controlled substanceabuse and overdoses have become very serious public health problems in the United States and Maine.In October 2015, the Maine State Epidemiological Outcomes Workgroup (SEOW) issued a special report on heroin, opioids, and other drugs in Maine. 1The executive summary of that report included:
Prescription drugs continue to represent a serious public health concern. Prescription drug misuse continues to have a large impact on treatment, mortality/morbidity, and crime in Maine. Pharmaceutical drugs contribute to the majority of drug overdose deaths. As the availability of prescription narcotics has leveled off, heroin use and the consequences thereof have been on the rise. Availability and accessibility of opioids continues to be a problem.According to the SEOW report, from 2009 to 2014 drug-related overdose deaths went up each year. In 2014, there were 208 drug-related overdose deaths compared to 131 motor vehicle related deaths. Of the 208 drug-related deaths, 186(89%) involved pharmaceutical drugs. According to the Maine Attorney General's Office, in 2015 there were 272 drug-related overdose deaths in Maine - an increase of 31% over 2014. 2The increase was attributed to heroin or fentanyl or a combination of the two drugs. In addition, overdose deaths (157) caused by illegal drugs like heroin exceeded overdose deaths (111) caused by pharmaceutical opioids. In December 2015, the CDC issued a new report 3 on opioid overdose deaths in the U.S., which included the following observations:
There is an epidemic of drug overdose (poisoning) deaths in the United States. Since 2000, the rate of deaths from drug overdoses has increased 137%, including a 200% increase in the rate of overdose deaths involving opioids (opioid pain relievers and heroin). In 2014 there were 47,055 drug overdose deaths in the United States. The opioid epidemic is worsening. Maine was one of 14 states with statistically significant increases in the rate of drug overdose deaths from 2013-2014. Opioids - primarily prescription pain relievers and heroin - are the main drugs associated with overdose deaths. Natural and semisynthetic opioids - which include the most commonly prescribed opioid pain relievers oxycodone and hydrocodone - continue to be involved in more overdose deaths than any other opioid type. Heroin drug overdoses tripled in 4 years - and are closely tied to opioid pain reliever misuse and dependence. Reversing this epidemic of opioid drug overdose deaths requires intensive efforts to improve safer prescribing of opioids.In 2016, on a national level prescriptions for narcotic medications were down 16% from their peak in 2011. 4 However, in 2016, there were 376 opiate-related overdoses in Maine (representing a 38% increase over 2015). The vast majority (84%) were caused by at least one opioid, including pharmaceutical and illicit opioid drugs. Pharmaceutical opioid deaths (33%) remained mostly stable; however, the number of deaths caused by hydrocodone increased substantially from 2 in 2015 to 18 in 2016. 5Accordingly, the purpose of this rule is to require that clinicians, consistent with the "CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain - United States, 2016," 6first consider the use of non-pharmacologic modalities and non-controlled drugs in the treatment of pain prior to prescribing controlled substances. Clinicians shall also be required to use and document Universal Precautions when prescribing controlled substances for the treatment of pain, including conducting a risk assessment to minimize the potential for adverse effects, abuse, misuse, diversion, addiction and overdose from controlled substances.Diversion and "doctor shopping" account for 40% of drug overdose deaths in the United States. 7To address this issue, clinicians have an obligation to utilize the PMP.While appropriate pain management is the clinician's responsibility, inappropriate treatment of pain may result from a clinician's lack of knowledge about pain management. Therefore, clinicians who prescribe controlled substances are required to maintain current clinical knowledge by complying with continuing education requirements set forth in this rule. In addition, clinicians shall comply with all applicable state and/or federal laws regarding prescribing of controlled substances.
The Boards also recognize that tolerance and physical and psychological dependence are normal consequences of the sustained use of opioid analgesics and are not the same as addiction, but addiction is a definite risk of such treatment. Clinicians shall offer or arrange evidence-based treatment (usually medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine or methadone in combination with behavioral therapies) for patients with opioid use disorder.
The Boards will evaluate allegations of inappropriate prescribing of controlled substances by referring to current clinical practice guidelines, including the "CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain - United States, 2016. "In addition, the Boards will review compliance with this rule, and when necessary, employ expert review in evaluating clinician prescribing of controlled substances. Clinicians should not fear disciplinary action from the Boards for prescribing controlled substances, including opioid analgesics, for a legitimate medical purpose and in the course of professional practice if they are following standards of care, established guidelines and the requirements of this rule. Judgment regarding the propriety of any specific course of action must be made based on all of the circumstances presented, and thoroughly documented in the patient's medical record.
1 Maine Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Substance Abuse. SEOW Special Report: Heroin, Opioids, and Other Drugs in Maine. October 2015.
http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/samhs/osa/data/cesn/Mental_Health_in_Maine_SEOW.pdf .
2 Gagnon, Dawn. "Overdose Deaths Hit Record High in Maine." Bangor Daily News. Mar. 8, 2016, p. A1.
3 "Increases in Drug and Opioid Overdose Deaths - United States 2000-2014." U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Early Release/Vol. 64, December 18, 2015.
4 Doug Long (IMS Health), "The U.S. Pharmaceutical Market: Trends and Outlook," August 7, 2016.
5 Marcella H. Sorg, PhD (2016) "Expanded Maine Drug Death Report for 2016," Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center, University of Maine.
6 "CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain - United States, 2016," U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Early Release/Vol. 65, March 15, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/rr/rr6501e1.htm.
7 Paulozzi, L. Baldwin, G., Franklin, G., Ghiya, N., & Popovic, T. (2012). CDC Grand Rounds: Prescription Drug Overdoses - a U.S. epidemic. Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 61(01), 10-13. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6101a3.htm.
