Small Business Taxpayer Exceptions Under Sections 263A, 448, 460 and 471, 254-278 [2020-28888]

Agencies

• Internal Revenue Service
• DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

[Federal Register Volume 86, Number 2 (Tuesday, January 5, 2021)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 254-278]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2020-28888]


=======================================================================
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

Internal Revenue Service

26 CFR Part 1

[TD 9942]
RIN 1545-BP53


Small Business Taxpayer Exceptions Under Sections 263A, 448, 460 
and 471

AGENCY: Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Treasury.

ACTION: Final regulations.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY: This document contains final regulations to implement 
legislative changes to sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471 of the Internal 
Revenue Code (Code) that simplify the application of those tax 
accounting provisions for certain businesses having average annual 
gross receipts that do not exceed $25,000,000, adjusted for inflation. 
This document also contains final regulations regarding certain special 
accounting rules for long-term contracts under section 460 to implement 
legislative changes applicable to corporate taxpayers. The final 
regulations generally affect taxpayers with average annual gross 
receipts of not more than $25 million, as adjusted for inflation.

DATES: 
    Effective date: The regulations are effective on January 5, 2021.
    Applicability dates: For dates of applicability, see Sec. Sec.  
1.263A-1(a)(2)(i), 1.263A-1(m)(6), 1.263A-2(g)(4), 1.263A-3(f)(2), 
1.263A-4(g)(2), 1.263A-7(a)(4)(ii), 1.381(c)(5)-1(f), 1.446-1(c)(3), 
1.448-2(h), 1.448-3(h), 1.460-1(h)(3), 1.460-3(d), 1.460-4(i), 1.460-
6(k), and 1.471-1(c).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Concerning Sec. Sec.  1.460-1 through 
1.460-6, Innessa Glazman, (202) 317-7006; concerning all other 
regulations in this document, Anna Gleysteen, (202) 317-7007.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

    This document contains amendments to the Income Tax Regulations (26 
CFR part 1) to implement statutory amendments to sections 263A, 448, 
460, and 471 of the Code made by section 13102 of Public Law 115-97 
(131 Stat. 2054), commonly referred to as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 
(TCJA). These statutory amendments generally simplify the application 
of the method of accounting rules under those provisions to certain 
businesses (other than tax shelters) with average annual gross receipts 
that do not exceed $25,000,000, adjusted for inflation.
    The uniform capitalization (UNICAP) rules of section 263A provide 
that, in general, the direct costs and the properly allocable share of 
the indirect costs of real or tangible personal property produced, or 
real or personal property described in section 1221(a)(1) acquired for 
resale, cannot be deducted but must either be capitalized into the 
basis of the property or included in inventory costs, as applicable. 
Before the enactment of the TCJA, certain types of taxpayers and 
certain types of property were exempt from UNICAP, but there was no 
generally applicable exemption based on gross receipts.
    Section 448(a) generally prohibits C corporations, partnerships 
with a C corporation as a partner, and tax shelters from using the cash 
receipts and disbursements method of accounting (cash method). However, 
section 448(b)(3) provides that section 448(a) does not apply to C 
corporations and partnerships with a C corporation as a partner that 
meet the gross receipts test of section 448(c). Prior to the TCJA's 
enactment, a taxpayer met the gross receipts test of section 448(c) if, 
for all taxable years preceding the current taxable year, the average 
annual gross receipts of the taxpayer (or any predecessor) for any 3-
taxable-year period did not exceed $5 million.
    Section 460(a) provides that income from a long-term contract must 
be determined using the percentage-of-completion method (PCM). A long-
term contract is defined in section 460(f) as generally any contract 
for the manufacture, building, installation, or construction of 
property if such contract is not completed within the taxable year in 
which such contract is entered into. Subject to special rules in 
section 460(b)(3), section 460(b)(1)(A) generally provides that the 
percentage of completion of a long-term contract is determined by 
comparing costs allocated to the contract under section 460(c) and 
incurred before the close of the taxable year with the estimated total 
contract costs. Prior to the TCJA, section 460(e)(1)(B) provided an 
exemption from the PCM for a long-term construction contract of a 
taxpayer who estimated that the contract would be completed within the 
2-year period from the commencement of the contract (two-year rule), 
and whose average annual gross receipts for the 3-taxable-year period 
ending with the year preceding the year the contract was entered into 
did not exceed $10 million (Section 460(e) gross receipts test).
    Section 471(a) requires inventories to be taken by a taxpayer when, 
in the opinion of the Secretary of the Treasury or his delegate 
(Secretary), taking an inventory is necessary to determine the income 
of the taxpayer. Section 1.471-1 requires the taking of an inventory at 
the beginning and end of each taxable year in which the production, 
purchase, or sale of merchandise is an income-producing factor. 
Additionally, when an inventory is required to be taken, Sec.  1.446-
1(c)(1)(iv) and (c)(2) require that an accrual method be used for 
purchases and sales. Prior to the enactment of the TCJA, there were no 
regulatory exceptions from the requirement to take an inventory under 
Sec.  1.471-1.
    The statutory amendments of the TCJA increase the gross receipts 
test amount under section 448(c) to $25,000,000, adjusted for 
inflation, for eligibility to use the cash method and also exempt 
taxpayers, other than a tax shelter under section 448(a)(3), meeting 
the gross receipts test (Section 448(c) Gross Receipts Test) from: (1) 
The UNICAP rules under section 263A; (2) the requirement to use the 
percentage-of-completion method under section 460 provided other 
requirements of section 460(e) are satisfied; and (3) the requirement 
to take inventories under section 471(a) if their inventory is treated 
as non-incidental materials and supplies, or if the method of 
accounting for their inventory conforms with the method reflected on 
their applicable financial statement (AFS), or if they do not have an 
AFS, their books and records prepared in accordance with their 
accounting procedures. These amendments generally apply to taxable 
years beginning after December 31, 2017. The amendments to section 460 
apply to contracts entered into after December 31, 2017, in taxable 
years ending after December 31, 2017.
    On August 20, 2018, the Department of the Treasury (Treasury 
Department)

[[Page 255]]

and the IRS issued Revenue Procedure 2018-40 (2018-34 IRB 320), which 
provided administrative procedures for a taxpayer, other than a tax 
shelter under section 448(a)(3), meeting the requirements of section 
448(c) to obtain the consent to change the taxpayer's method of 
accounting to a method of accounting permitted by section 263A, 448, 
460 or 471. The revenue procedure also requested comments for future 
guidance regarding the implementation of the TCJA modifications to 
sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471. The record of public comments 
received in response to Revenue Procedure 2018-40 may be requested by 
sending an email to [email protected].
    On August 5, 2020, the Treasury Department and the IRS published a 
notice of proposed rulemaking (REG-132766-18) in the Federal Register 
(85 FR 47608), correction published in the Federal Register (85 FR 
58307) on September 18, 2020, containing proposed regulations under 
sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471 (proposed regulations). The proposed 
regulations reflect consideration of the comments that were received in 
response to Revenue Procedure 2018-40.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS received nine written comments 
responding to the proposed regulations. The Treasury Department and the 
IRS received one request to speak at a public hearing, which was later 
withdrawn. Therefore, no public hearing was held. Comments received 
before these final regulations were substantially developed, including 
all comments received on or before the deadline for comments on 
September 14, 2020, were carefully considered in developing these final 
regulations.
    Copies of the comments received are available for public inspection 
at https://www.regulations.gov or upon request. After consideration of 
the comments received, this Treasury decision adopts the proposed 
regulations as revised in response to such comments. Those comments and 
the revisions are discussed in the Summary of Comments and Explanation 
of Revisions section of this preamble.

Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions

I. Overview

    This Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions section 
summarizes the formal written comments that were received addressing 
the proposed regulations. However, comments merely summarizing or 
interpreting the proposed regulations or recommending statutory 
revisions generally are not discussed in this preamble. These final 
regulations provide guidance under sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471 to 
implement the TCJA's amendments to those provisions. These final 
regulations also modify Sec. Sec.  1.381(c)(5)-1 and 1.446-1 to reflect 
these statutory amendments. The rationale for provisions in these final 
regulations that are not discussed in this Explanation of Revisions 
remains the same as described in the Explanation of Provisions section 
of the preamble to the proposed regulations.

A. Section 263A(i)

1. Costing Rules for Self-Constructed Assets
    In response to Revenue Procedure 2018-40, a commenter stated that a 
small business taxpayer that is exempted from section 263A pursuant to 
section 263A(i) would be subject to the costing rules prior to the 
enactment of section 263A (pre-section 263A costing rules) for self-
constructed assets used in the taxpayer's trade or business. However, 
according to the commenter, the pre-section 263A costing rules were 
unclear as to what costs are capitalizable to self-constructed assets. 
In light of this comment, the preamble to the proposed regulations 
requested comments on specific clarifications needed regarding the pre-
section 263A costing rules. Only one comment was received in response 
to this request. The sole commenter noted that one of the reasons for 
the enactment of section 263A was that courts had reached different 
conclusions as to the types of costs that were required to be 
capitalized under the pre-section 263A costing rules. Compare Adolph 
Coors Co. v. Commissioner, 519 F.2d 1280 (10th Cir. 1975), cert. denied 
423 U.S. 1087 (1976) (requiring the full inclusion of all overhead 
costs in the cost basis of self-constructed assets) with Fort Howard 
Paper Co. v. Commissioner, 49 T.C. 275 (1967) (requiring only the 
inclusion of overhead costs directly attributable to the self-
constructed asset). The commenter suggested that taxpayers who used the 
exemption under section 263A(i) to not capitalize costs under section 
263A be permitted to use an incremental costing method to determine the 
costs of self-constructed assets, consistent with the approach in Fort 
Howard Paper. The commenter stated that identifying indirect costs not 
directly attributable to the construction of specific self-constructed 
assets would be difficult.
    After considering this comment, the Treasury Department and the IRS 
have determined that the requested clarification is beyond the scope of 
these regulations, which is to implement section 263A(i) as enacted by 
TCJA. For taxpayers that elect under section 263A(i) to not apply 
section 263A, the requirement to capitalize certain costs to self-
constructed assets comes from other provisions of the Code, such as 
section 263(a). TCJA did not amend such provisions and thus the 
clarification of permissible capitalization methods and the types of 
costs required to be capitalized to self-constructed assets under such 
provisions is beyond the scope of these final regulations.
2. Changes to Regulations Under Section 448
    Under section 448(a)(3), a tax shelter is prohibited from using the 
cash method. Section 448(d)(3) cross references section 461(i)(3) to 
define the term ``tax shelter.'' Section 461(i)(3)(B), in turn, 
includes a cross reference to the definition of ``syndicate'' in 
section 1256(e)(3)(B), which defines a syndicate as a partnership or 
other entity (other than a C corporation) if more than 35 percent of 
the losses of that entity during the taxable year are allocable to 
limited partners or limited entrepreneurs. Sections 1.448-1T(b)(3) (for 
taxable years beginning before January 1, 2018) and proposed 1.448-
2(b)(2)(iii) (for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017) 
narrow this definition by providing that a taxpayer is a syndicate only 
if more than 35 percent of its losses are allocated to limited partners 
or limited entrepreneurs. Consequently, a partnership or other entity 
(other than a C corporation) may be considered a syndicate under 
section 448 only for a taxable year in which it has losses.
    Proposed Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B) permits a taxpayer to elect to 
use the allocated taxable income or loss of the immediately preceding 
taxable year to determine whether the taxpayer is a syndicate under 
section 448(d)(3) for the current taxable year. Under the proposed 
regulations, a taxpayer that makes this election must apply the rule to 
all subsequent taxable years, and for all purposes for which status as 
a tax shelter under section 448(d)(3) is relevant, unless the 
Commissioner permits a revocation of the election.
    Several comments were received concerning issues related to tax 
shelters, including the definition of ``syndicate,'' under proposed 
Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(i)(B). Some commenters recommend using the 
authority granted under section 1256(e)(3)(C)(v) to provide a deemed 
active participation rule to disregard certain interests held by 
limited

[[Page 256]]

entrepreneurs or limited partners for applying the Section 448(c) Gross 
Receipts Test if certain conditions were met. For example, conditions 
of the rule could include that the entity had not been classified as a 
syndicate within the last three taxable years, and that the average 
taxable income of the entity for that period was greater than zero.
    The final regulations do not adopt this recommendation. The 
Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that it would be 
inappropriate to provide an exception to the active participation rules 
in section 1256(e)(3)(C)(v) by ``deeming'' active participation for 
small business taxpayers. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe 
that the deeming of active participation in this context would be 
overbroad and would run counter to Congressional intent. Sections 
448(b)(3) and (d)(3), 461(i)(3) and 1256(e)(3)(C) were not modified by 
the TCJA, and the legislative history to section 13012 of the TCJA does 
not indicate any Congressional intent to modify the definition of ``tax 
shelter'' or ``syndicate.'' By not modifying those provisions, Congress 
presumably meant to exclude tax shelters, including syndicates, from 
being eligible to use the cash method of accounting and the small 
business taxpayer exemptions in section 13102 of the TCJA, even while 
otherwise expanding eligibility to meet the Section 448(c) Gross 
Receipts Test.
    Other comments requested clarification generally of what ``active 
participation'' means and the circumstances, if any, under which a 
member of a limited liability company is treated as a ``limited 
partner'' or ``limited entrepreneur'' under section 461(k)(4). The 
Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that such guidance is 
outside the scope of these final regulations, which are to implement 
the changes made by section 13102 of the TCJA.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS remain aware of the increased 
relevance of the definition of tax shelter under section 448(d)(3) 
after enactment of the TCJA and the practical concerns regarding the 
determination of tax shelter status for the taxable year. To ameliorate 
these practical concerns, these final regulations modify the syndicate 
election provided in proposed Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B) to provide 
additional relief by making the election an annual election. The 
Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that an annual election 
appropriately balances the statutory language with the consistency 
requirement for use of a method of accounting under section 446(a) and 
Sec.  1.446-1. A cash method taxpayer that is generally profitable 
year-to-year may experience an unforeseen taxable loss for an anomalous 
year but return to its profitable position in subsequent years. If the 
taxpayer allocated more than 35 percent of the taxable loss to limited 
partners or limited entrepreneurs, the taxpayer would be required to 
change from the cash method to another method for the anomalous year in 
accordance with section 448(a)(3). However, that taxpayer would 
otherwise not be prohibited under section 448(a)(3) to use the cash 
method in the next profitable taxable year. An annual election under 
Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B) allows a taxpayer to elect in the loss year 
to use the allocated taxable income or loss of the immediately 
preceding taxable year to determine whether the taxpayer is a syndicate 
under section 448(d)(3) for the current taxable year. The Treasury 
Department and the IRS have determined that permitting taxpayers to 
continue to use the cash method, as well as other methods impacted by a 
determination under section 448(d)(3), in such situations is consistent 
with the requirements under section 446(a).
    This election applies for all provisions of the Code that 
specifically refer to section 448(a)(3) to define tax shelter, such as 
the small business exemptions under sections 163(j)(3), 263A(i)(1), 
460(e)(1)(B) and 471(c)(1). A taxpayer is required to file a statement 
with the original timely filed Federal income tax return, with 
extensions, to affirmatively make this election under Sec.  1.448-
2(b)(2)(iii)(B) for such taxable year. The election is valid only for 
the taxable year for which it is made, and once made, cannot be 
revoked. The Treasury Department and the IRS intend to issue procedural 
guidance to address the revocation of an election made under proposed 
Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B) as a result of the application of the final 
regulations.
    Other commenters noted for some taxpayers who took advantage of the 
small business exception in section 448(b)(3) to change to the cash 
method, the change in method of accounting resulted in a negative 
section 481(a) adjustment, which triggered an allocated loss and made 
the taxpayer a tax shelter under section 448(a)(3). As a result, the 
taxpayers became ineligible to use the cash method for the year in 
which the negative section 481(a) adjustment was recognized but may be 
otherwise eligible to use the cash method for future years. Under 
proposed Sec.  1.448-2(g)(3), these taxpayers would be ineligible for 
the automatic change procedures to make a subsequent change back to the 
cash method once they are no longer tax shelters within a five-year 
period. The commenters recommend relief for taxpayers with this 
situation.
    The commenters propose an exception to the tax shelter rules for a 
taxpayer that satisfies the Section 448 Gross Receipts Test if a 
negative section 481(a) adjustment from a change in method of 
accounting under the small business taxpayer exemptions (for example, 
sections 263A(i), 471(c), 448(b)) results in the taxpayer being 
considered a tax shelter under section 448(d)(3) and proposed Sec.  
1.448-2(b)(2)(iii). These final regulations do not adopt this 
suggestion. As described in the Preamble to the proposed regulations, 
the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that no exception 
was provided in the TCJA to limit the definition of tax shelter in 
section 448(d)(3) for taxpayers making method changes related to the 
small business taxpayer exemptions. However, the Treasury Department 
and the IRS expect that the annual election under Sec.  1.448-
2(b)(2)(iii)(B), described earlier, will provide relief for many 
taxpayers in this situation.
    Additionally, the Treasury Department and the IRS have reconsidered 
the 5-year restriction on automatic method changes in light of these 
comments. Section 446(a), unmodified by the TCJA, provides that taxable 
income shall be computed under the method of accounting on the basis of 
which the taxpayer regularly computes his income in keeping his books. 
A taxpayer that changes its method of accounting for the same item with 
regular frequency (for example, annually or every other taxable year) 
is not adhering to the consistency requirement of section 446. The 
consistency requirement of section 446(a) is distinct from the 
authority granted the Commissioner under section 446(b) to determine 
whether the method of accounting used by a taxpayer clearly reflects 
income. See e.g., Advertisers Exchange, Inc. v. Commissioner, 25 T.C. 
1086, 1092 (1956) (``Consistency is the key and is required regardless 
of the method or system of accounting used.'') (citations omitted); 
Huntington Securities Corporation v. Busey, 112 F.2d 368, 370 (1940) 
(``. . . whatever method the taxpayer adopts must be consistent from 
year to year unless the Commissioner authorizes a change.'')
    The Treasury Department and the IRS are aware that the 5-year 
restriction in proposed Sec.  1.448-2(g)(3) could be burdensome for a 
small business taxpayer that was required to change from the cash 
method as a result of

[[Page 257]]

section 448(a)(3) or not meeting the Section 448 Gross Receipts Test in 
a taxable year but that becomes eligible to use the cash method under 
section 448 in the subsequent taxable year. Proposed Sec.  1.448-
2(g)(3) would have required this small business taxpayer to request 
consent to change back to the cash method using the non-automatic 
change procedures in Revenue Procedure 2015-13 (or successor). These 
final regulations remove the 5-year restriction on making automatic 
method changes for certain situations.
    Sections 263A(i)(3), 448(d)(7), 460(e)(2)(B) and 471(c)(4) provide 
that certain changes in method of accounting for the small business 
exemptions are made with the consent of the Secretary. A taxpayer must 
follow the applicable administrative procedures related to a change in 
method of accounting notwithstanding the deemed consent of the 
Secretary. See, e.g., Capital One Financial Corporation and 
Subsidiaries v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 130 T.C. 147, 157 
(2008) (``a taxpayer forced to change its method of accounting under 
section 448 must still file a Form 3115 with its return''). The 
Treasury Department and the IRS intend to provide procedural rules 
relating to changes in method of accounting to implement the final 
regulations using the automatic method change procedures of Revenue 
Procedure 2015-13. Those procedural rules will address whether a waiver 
of the 5-year overall method eligibility rule in section 5.01(1)(e) of 
Revenue Procedure 2015-13 is appropriate for small business taxpayers 
that were required to change from the cash method in one taxable year 
but are not subsequently limited by section 448.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that taxpayers 
that are voluntarily changing (that is, not required by section 448 to 
no longer use the cash method) between overall methods are 
distinguishable from taxpayers that are required to change from the 
cash method to another method because they no longer meet the Section 
448(c) Gross Receipts Test or become a tax shelter under section 
448(d)(3). The procedural guidance is expected to address both fact 
patterns. Additionally, the Treasury Department and the IRS intend for 
the procedural guidance to address similar fact patterns for taxpayers 
making changes related to the regulations under sections 263A(i), 
460(e)(1)(B) and 471(c), as discussed in this Summary of Comments and 
Explanation of Revisions.
3. Section 471 Small Business Taxpayer Exemptions
A. Inventory Treated as Non-Incidental Materials and Supplies
    The preamble to the proposed regulations notes that the Treasury 
Department and the IRS interpret the statutory language of section 
471(c)(1)(B) to mean that the property excepted from section 471(a) by 
that provision continues to be inventory property even though the 
general inventory rules under section 471(a) are not required to be 
applied to that property. Section 471(c)(1)(B) provides that a 
qualifying taxpayer's ``method of accounting for inventory for such 
taxable year'' (emphasis added) will not be treated as failing to 
clearly reflect income if the method ``treats inventory as non-
incidental materials and supplies'' (emphasis added). The Treasury 
Department and the IRS read the repeated use of the word ``inventory'' 
to mean that Congress intended that inventory property remains 
inventory property while relieving taxpayers from the general inventory 
rules of section 471(a). To reduce confusion about the nature of 
property treated as non-incidental materials and supplies under section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i), these final regulations refer to the method under that 
provision of the Code as the ``section 471(c) NIMS inventory method.''
    The Treasury Department and the IRS interpret section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) as providing three distinct benefits for taxpayers. 
First, the provision significantly expanded the types of taxpayers 
permitted to treat their inventory as non-incidental materials and 
supplies. Under prior administrative guidance, as discussed later in 
section 3.A.i of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, 
taxpayers with gross receipts of no more than $1 million and taxpayers 
in certain industries (generally not producers or resellers) with gross 
receipts of no more than $10 million were permitted to treat their 
inventory as non-incidental materials and supplies. Section 471(c) 
greatly expanded the availability of this method of accounting to 
taxpayers in all types of trades or businesses, including producers and 
resellers, by reference to the increased cap on gross receipts under 
the Section 448(c) Gross Receipts Test. Second, treating inventory as 
non-incidental materials and supplies under Sec.  1.471-1(b)(5) 
provides simplification and burden reduction for taxpayers by requiring 
only certain costs to be capitalized to inventory. For example, a 
taxpayer using the section 471(c) NIMS inventory method does not 
capitalize direct labor costs or any indirect costs to inventory costs. 
See discussion of direct labor costs later in section 3.A.iii of this 
Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions. Simplification does 
not indicate that the nature of the property was changed by the TCJA, 
or that the intent of Congress was to provide immediate expensing of 
inventory costs. Thirdly, taxpayers, other than a tax shelter under 
section 448(a)(3), treating inventory as non-incidental materials and 
supplies under Sec.  1.471-1(b)(5) are eligible to use the overall cash 
method of accounting for purchases and sales of merchandise, rather 
than being required to use an accrual method. See Sec.  1.446-
1(a)(4)(i).
i. Definition of the Term ``Used or Consumed''
    The preamble to the proposed regulations provides that the Treasury 
Department and IRS interpret section 471(c)(1)(B)(i) as generally 
codifying the administrative guidance existing at the time of its 
enactment (that is, Revenue Procedure 2001-10 (2001-2 IRB 272) and 
Revenue Procedure 2002-28 (2002-18 IRB 815)) and making that method 
available to significantly more taxpayers. Accordingly, the proposed 
regulations provided that items of inventory treated as materials and 
supplies under section 471(c) are used or consumed in the taxable year 
in which the taxpayer provides the item to a customer, and the cost of 
such item is recovered in that taxable year or the taxable year in 
which the taxpayer pays for or incurs such cost, whichever is later.
    Comments were received on the definition of ``used or consumed'' in 
proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4)(i) as it relates to producers. A commenter 
asserted that the meaning of the term ``used or consumed'' for a 
producer using the section 471(c) NIMS inventory supplies method should 
be consistent with the meaning of the term ``used or consumed'' in 
Sec.  1.162-3. The commenter states that a producer's raw materials are 
``used or consumed'' when the raw materials enter the taxpayer's 
production process. The commenter states that under section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) and Sec.  1.162-3(a)(1), only section 263A would limit 
a producer's ability to recover the cost of its raw materials when the 
raw materials are first used in the production process, and the final 
regulations should be modified to provide that a producer does not wait 
until the finished product is provided to a customer to recover the 
costs of its raw materials. In addition, the commenter states that the 
policy considerations

[[Page 258]]

underlying this provision were to provide small business taxpayers with 
simplification, and the definition of ``used or consumed'' for 
producers in proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4)(i) does not result in 
simplification.
    The Treasury Department and IRS decline to change the definition of 
used or consumed for a producer in these final regulations. As 
discussed previously, the Treasury Department and the IRS interpret 
section 471(c)(1)(B)(i) as generally codifying the administrative 
guidance existing at the time of enactment of TCJA (that is, Revenue 
Procedure 2001-10 and Revenue Procedure 2002-28) and making it 
applicable to significantly more taxpayers, in addition to the other 
benefits discussed in section 3.A of this Summary of Comments and 
Explanation of Revisions. The commenter's recommendation that the term 
``used or consumed'' for a producer should be treated as occurring when 
the raw material is used or consumed in the taxpayer's production 
process would allow a producer to recover production costs earlier than 
was previously allowed under the administrative guidance of Revenue 
Procedure 2001-10 and Revenue Procedure 2002-28. Additionally, the 
commenter's recommendation suggests that the term ``used or consumed'' 
should be interpreted literally by looking to actual use or consumption 
by the taxpayer. However, under such an interpretation a reseller, 
unlike a producer, would not be able to recover any inventory costs as 
a reseller does not acquire raw materials for use in a production 
process nor does it use or consume finished inventory; rather a 
reseller acquires and resells finished inventory, unchanged, to 
customers. The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the 
statute and legislative history do not support a reading of the 
provision that would provide such a disparity in the recovery of 
inventory costs between producers and resellers.
    In addition, the commenter's argument interprets the words 
``inventory treated as non-incidental materials and supplies'' to mean 
that the components used to produce the finished goods inventory, 
rather than the finished goods inventory itself, are treated as 
materials and supplies. The interpretation advocated by the commenter 
would result in producers being permitted to recover the cost inputs of 
their units of inventory in the same manner as they recover the costs 
of their materials and supplies (that is, when the cost input is used 
or consumed in producing the unit of inventory). The Treasury 
Department and the IRS do not believe Congress intended to break down 
the traditional definition of the word ``inventory,'' particularly 
since that position benefits only a certain group of taxpayers 
(producers). The Treasury Department and the IRS determined that the 
definition for used or consumed should provide an equitable rule for 
the timing of the recovery of the inventory between producers and 
resellers. Accordingly, these final regulations adopt the proposed 
regulations without change.
ii. De Minimis Safe Harbor Under Sec.  1.263(a)-1(f)
    Several comments were received regarding the applicability of the 
de minimis safe harbor under Sec.  1.263(a)-1(f) (de minimis safe 
harbor) to inventory treated as non-incidental materials and supplies. 
The commenters assert that the final regulations should permit a 
taxpayer that uses the section 471(c) NIMS inventory method to use the 
de minimis safe harbor for its inventory treated as non-incidental 
materials and supplies. The commenters point to footnote 465 of the 
Bluebook, which described the law, both before and after TCJA, as 
generally permitting deduction of the cost of non-incidental materials 
and supplies in the taxable year in which they are first used or are 
consumed in the taxpayer's operations in accordance with Sec.  1.162-
3(a)(1). Furthermore, under Sec.  1.162-3(a)(1), a taxpayer may also be 
able to elect to deduct such non-incidental materials and supplies in 
the taxable year the amount is paid under the de minimis safe harbor 
election under Sec.  1.263(a)-1(f). General Explanation of Public Law 
115-97, at 113 fn. 465.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS were aware of footnote 465 in 
the Bluebook when drafting the proposed regulations, but have a 
different understanding of the rule for ``inventory treated as non-
incidental materials and supplies'' under Section 471(c)(1)(B)(i) as 
explained in section 3.A.i of this Summary of Comments and Explanation 
of Revisions. The Treasury Department and the IRS interpret section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) as generally codifying the administrative procedures 
that established the non-incidental materials and supplies method for 
inventoriable items, and prior pronouncements of Sec. Sec.  1.162-3 and 
1.263(a)-1(f) that these regulations do not apply to inventory 
property, including inventory property treated as non-incidental 
materials and supplies. See, e.g., Tangible Property Regulations--
Frequently Asked Questions, available at https://www.irs.gov/businesses/small-businesses-self-employed/tangible-property-final-regulations#Ademinimis.
    A commenter states that the de minimis safe harbor was created 
after Revenue Procedure 2001-10 and Revenue Procedure 2002-28 were 
released, and therefore, did not address the issue of the applicability 
of the de minimis safe harbor. The Treasury Department and the IRS 
agree with the timeline described by the commenter. However, as 
discussed in the immediately preceding paragraph, the IRS' position on 
the de minimis safe harbor has been addressed in a prior pronouncement. 
As described previously in section 3.A of this Summary of Comments and 
Explanation of Revisions, inventory treated as non-incidental materials 
and supplies retains its character as inventory property. The de 
minimis safe harbor, which is a regulatory election rather than a 
statutory one, does not apply to inventory. Section 1.263(a)-
1(f)(2)(i).
    Finally, the Treasury Department and the IRS note that for amounts 
paid to qualify for the de minimis safe harbor, the amounts must have 
been expensed on the taxpayer's applicable financial statement or books 
and records, as applicable. Sections 1.263(a)-1(f)(1)(i)(B) and 
(ii)(B). This applicable financial statement or books and records 
expensing requirement under Sec.  1.263(a)-1(f) would be an impediment 
to the application of the de minimis safe harbor under the section 
471(c) NIMS inventory method for taxpayers who maintain records of 
their inventory in their applicable financial statement or books and 
records, even if the section 471(c) NIMS inventory method permitted the 
use of the de minimis safe harbor method. In addition, there is no need 
for the separate de minimis safe harbor because small business 
taxpayers may use the inventory method provided in section 471(c)(1)(B) 
which generally provides that a taxpayer who expenses inventory costs 
in its applicable financial statement or books and records may 
generally expense that cost for Federal income tax purposes. For 
example, a small business taxpayer that expenses the cost of ``freight-
in'' in its books and records and wants to expense the item for Federal 
income tax purposes may generally do so using the non-AFS section 
471(c) inventory method, as permitted by section 471(c)(1)(B)(ii) and 
discussed later in section 3.C.ii of this Summary of Comments and 
Explanation of Revisions.
iii. Direct Labor
    Proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4)(ii) provides that inventory costs 
includible in the

[[Page 259]]

section 471(c) NIMS inventory method are the direct costs of the 
property produced or property acquired for resale. However, an 
inventory cost does not include a cost for which a deduction would be 
disallowed or that is not otherwise recoverable, in whole or in part, 
but for Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4), under another provision of the Code.
    Some comments were received on the types of direct costs required 
to be included as an inventory cost under the section 471(c) NIMS 
inventory method. These commenters recommended the final regulations 
exclude direct labor costs from the definition of an inventory cost 
under proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4)(ii). The commenters reasoned that 
the preamble to the proposed regulation indicated that section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) was generally a codification of Revenue Procedure 2001-
10 and Revenue Procedure 2002-28. However, the commenters point out 
that this administrative guidance did not provide for direct labor or 
overhead costs to be included in the non-incidental materials and 
supplies method.
    One commenter asserted that inventory treated as non-incidental 
materials and supplies are not inventory property but are to be 
characterized as a material and supply. The commenter discussed Example 
1, in Section III.D of Notice 88-86 (1988-2 CB 401) to determine the 
treatment of non-incidental materials and supplies prior to the 
enactment of section 263A. Example 1 involves an architect providing 
design services that include blueprints and drawings and deals with the 
provision of de minimis amounts of property by a service provider. This 
commenter cites to Notice 88-86 to provide, by analogy, that inventory 
treated as non-incidental materials and supplies under section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) should not include direct labor costs.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS disagree with the application 
by analogy to Example 1 in Section III.D of Notice 88-86. That example 
illustrates that an individual providing services, such as an 
architect, is not a producer despite providing a de minimis amount of 
property to the client as part of the provision of services. As 
discussed in section 3.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of 
Revisions, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe that inventory 
property treated as non-incidental materials and supplies retains its 
character as inventory property, and so Example 1 is inapposite.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS acknowledge that there was 
uncertainty under Revenue Procedure 2001-10 and Revenue Procedure 2002-
28 as to whether direct labor and overhead costs were required to be 
capitalized under the non-incidental materials and supplies method 
permitted by those revenue procedures. The Treasury Department and the 
IRS are also aware that tracking of direct labor costs may be 
burdensome, and in some cases, difficult to do for many small 
businesses. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the 
commenters' request that direct labor costs be excluded from the 
inventory costs required to be included in inventory treated as non-
incidental materials and supplies. As a result, these final regulations 
provide that inventory costs includible in the section 471(c) NIMS 
inventory method are direct material costs of the property produced or 
the costs of property acquired for resale.
B. Treatment of Inventory by Taxpayers With an Applicable Financial 
Statement (AFS)
    Under proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(5), a taxpayer other than a tax 
shelter, that has an AFS and that meets the Section 448(c) Gross 
Receipts Test is not required to take an inventory under section 
471(a), and may choose to treat its inventory as reflected in its AFS. 
Proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(5)(ii) defines AFS by reference to section 
451(b)(3) and the accompanying regulations, which included the 
additional AFS rules provided in proposed Sec.  1.451-3(h).
    In section 4.C.i of the preamble to the proposed regulations, the 
Treasury Department and the IRS requested comments on a proposed 
consistency rule for a taxpayer with an AFS that has a financial 
accounting year that differs from the taxpayer's taxable year, and on 
other issues related to the application of proposed Sec.  1.451-3(h) to 
the AFS section 471(c) inventory method. The Treasury Department and 
the IRS proposed to require a taxpayer with an AFS that uses the AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method to consistently apply the same 
mismatched reportable period method of accounting provided in proposed 
Sec.  1.451-3(h)(4) for its AFS section 471(c) inventory method of 
accounting that is used for section 451 purposes. No comments were 
received on the consistency rule or other issues related to the 
application of proposed Sec.  1.451-3(h) to the AFS section 471(c) 
inventory method.
    These final regulations adopt this consistency rule. The Treasury 
Department and the IRS have determined that a taxpayer using an accrual 
method with an AFS that has a mismatched reporting period with its 
taxable year should apply the same mismatched reportable period method 
of accounting for revenue recognition purposes and inventory purposes 
because there is better matching of income and cost of goods sold by 
applying the same reportable period method.
C. Treatment of Inventory by Taxpayers Without an AFS
    Under proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(6), a taxpayer, other than a tax 
shelter, that does not have an AFS and that meets the Section 448(c) 
Gross Receipts Test is not required to take an inventory under section 
471(a), and may choose to use the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method to account for its inventory. The non-AFS section 471(c) 
inventory method is the method of accounting for inventory reflected in 
the taxpayer's books and records that are prepared in accordance with 
the taxpayer's accounting procedures and that properly reflect the 
taxpayer's business activities for non-tax purposes. For example, a 
books and records method that determines ending inventory and cost of 
goods sold that properly reflects the taxpayer's business activities 
for non-Federal income tax purposes is to be used under the taxpayer's 
non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method.
(i) Definition of Books and Records
    Some comments were received on the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method and the standard used in proposed Sec.  1.471-1(b)(6) for 
``books and records.'' One commenter reasoned that the purpose of 
section 471(c)(1)(B)(ii) was to provide simplification, and the 
reliance on the definition of books and records used in case law is too 
complex, creates audit risks, and uncertainties as to what books and 
records means. The commenter recommended using a standard in which 
``books and records'' is a flexible term and something the taxpayer and 
his accounting professional can agree on that is consistent from year 
to year. For example, the commenter suggests that any financial 
statement reporting of inventory that is consistently applied be 
acceptable as books and records.
    Some comments discuss the issue of work papers and physical counts 
of inventory, and whether either should be used if a taxpayer is 
expensing these items for books and records purposes. The commenters 
asserted that even though a taxpayer takes a physical count of 
inventory, the taxpayer should be allowed to expense the inventory for 
Federal income tax purposes if the inventory is expensed on its books 
and records.
    The Treasury Department and the IRS decline to change the 
definition of the

[[Page 260]]

term ``books and records'' in these final regulations, and the rules 
continue to generally include both work papers and physical counts of 
inventory. The term books and records is used elsewhere in the Code and 
regulations, and there is no indication in the statute or legislative 
history to section 471(c)(1)(B)(ii) that a different definition is 
intended from the general usage of this term used elsewhere in the 
Code. Consequently, these final regulations use the well-established 
definition of books and records of a taxpayer, which includes the 
totality of the taxpayer's documents and electronically-stored data. 
See, for example, United States v. Euge, 444 U.S. 707 (1980). See also 
Digby v. Commissioner, 103 T.C. 441 (1994), and Sec.  1.6001-1(a).
    Certain commenters requested that the final regulations provide 
additional clarification on the significance of the taking of a 
physical count of inventory under the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method. For example, commenters requested that Example 1 in proposed 
Sec.  1.471-1(b)(6)(iii) be modified to provide that the physical count 
is ignored if the taxpayer does not provide inventory information to a 
creditor. These final regulations provide additional examples, 
including variations on Example 1, to clarify the relevance of a 
physical count of inventory under the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method. For example, a taxpayer that takes a physical count of 
inventory for reordering purposes but does not allocate cost to such 
inventory is not required to use the physical count for the non-AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method, regardless of whether the information 
is otherwise used for an internal report purpose or provided to an 
external third party, such as a creditor. Alternatively, a taxpayer 
that takes an end-of-year physical count and uses this information in 
its accounting procedures to allocate costs to inventory is required to 
use this inventory information for the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method regardless of whether the taxpayer makes reconciling entries to 
expense these costs in its financial statements. Thus, the examples in 
these final regulations clarify the principle that a taxpayer may not 
ignore its regular accounting procedures or portions of its books and 
records under the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method.
(ii) Inventory Costs
    The proposed regulations defined ``inventory costs'' for the non-
AFS section 471(c) inventory method generally as costs that the 
taxpayer capitalizes to property produced or property acquired for 
resale in its books and records. Certain commenters requested that the 
final regulations clarify how a taxpayer treats costs to acquire or 
produce tangible property that the taxpayer does not capitalize in its 
books and records because the proposed regulations did not specifically 
address these costs.
    These final regulations clarify in Sec.  1.471-1(b)(6)(i) that 
costs that are generally required to be capitalized to inventory under 
section 471(a) but that the taxpayer is not capitalizing in its books 
and records are not required to be capitalized to inventory. The 
Treasury Department and the IRS have also determined that, under this 
method, such costs are not treated as amounts paid to acquire or 
produce tangible property under Sec.  1.263(a)-2, and therefore, are 
generally deductible when they are paid or incurred if such costs may 
be otherwise deducted or recovered notwithstanding Sec.  1.471-1(b)(4) 
under another provision of the Code and Regulations. Additionally, 
these final regulations clarify that costs capitalized for the non-AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method are those costs that related to the 
production or resale of the inventory to which they are capitalized in 
the taxpayer's books and records. Similar clarifications have been made 
in Sec.  1.471-1(b)(5) regarding the AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method.

Applicability Dates

    These final regulations are applicable for taxable years beginning 
on or after January 5, 2021. However, a taxpayer may apply these 
regulations for a taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, and 
before January 5, 2021, provided that if the taxpayer applies any 
aspect of these final regulations under a particular Code provision, 
the taxpayer must follow all the applicable rules contained in these 
regulations that relate to that Code provision for such taxable year 
and all subsequent taxable years, and must follow the administrative 
procedures for filing a change in method of accounting in accordance 
with Sec.  1.446-1(e)(3)(ii). For example, a taxpayer that wants to 
apply Sec.  1.263A-1(j) to be exempt from capitalizing costs under 
section 263A must apply Sec.  1.448-2 to determine whether it is 
eligible for the exemption. The same taxpayer must apply Sec.  1.448-2 
to determine whether it is eligible to apply Sec.  1.471-1(b) to be 
exempt from the general inventory rules under section 471(a). However, 
it may choose not to apply Sec.  1.471-1(b) even though it chooses to 
apply Sec.  1.263A-1(j) and Sec.  1.448-2.
    Alternatively, a taxpayer may rely on the proposed regulations for 
a taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017 and before January 5, 
2021, provided that if the taxpayer applies any aspect of the proposed 
regulations under a particular Code provision, the taxpayer must follow 
all of the applicable rules contained in the proposed regulations that 
relate to that Code provision for such taxable year, and follow the 
administrative procedures for filing a change in method of accounting 
in accordance with Sec.  1.446-1(e)(3)(ii).

Statement of Availability of IRS Documents

    The IRS notices, revenue rulings, and revenue procedures cited in 
this preamble are published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (or 
Cumulative Bulletin) and are available from the Superintendent of 
Documents, U.S. Government Publishing Office, Washington, DC 20402, or 
by visiting the IRS website at https://www.irs.gov.

Special Analyses

    This regulation is not subject to review under section 6(b) of 
Executive Order 12866 pursuant to the Memorandum of Agreement (April 
11, 2018) between the Treasury Department and the Office of Management 
and Budget regarding review of tax regulations.

I. Paperwork Reduction Act

    Section 1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B) imposes a collection of information 
for an election to use prior year's allocated taxable income or loss to 
determine whether a partnership or other entity (other than a C 
corporation) is a ``syndicate'' for purposes of section 448(d)(3) for 
the current tax year. The election is made by attaching a statement to 
the taxpayer's original Federal income tax return (including 
extensions) for the taxable year that the election is made. The 
election is an annual election and, if made for a taxable year, cannot 
be revoked. The collection of information is voluntary for purposes of 
obtaining a benefit under the proposed regulations. The likely 
respondents are businesses or other for-profit institutions, and small 
businesses or organizations.
    Estimated total annual reporting burden: 224,165 hours.
    Estimated average annual burden hours per respondent: 1 hour.
    Estimated number of respondents: 224,165.
    Estimated annual frequency of responses: Once.
    Other than the election statement, these regulations do not impose 
any additional information collection

[[Page 261]]

requirements in the form of reporting, recordkeeping requirements or 
third-party disclosure statements. However, because the exemptions in 
sections 263A, 448, 460 and 471 are methods of accounting under the 
statute, taxpayers are required to request the consent of the 
Commissioner for a change in method of accounting under section 446(e) 
to implement the statutory exemptions. The IRS expects that these 
taxpayers will request this consent by filing Form 3115, Application 
for Change in Accounting Method. Taxpayers may request these changes 
using reduced filing requirements by completing only certain parts of 
Form 3115. See Revenue Procedure 2018-40 (2018-34 IRB 320). Revenue 
Procedure 2018-40 provides procedures for a taxpayer to make a change 
in method of accounting using the automatic change procedures of 
Revenue Procedure 2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) in order to use the 
exemptions provided in sections 263A, 460 and/or 471. See also the 
revenue procedure accompanying these regulations for similar method 
change procedures to make a change in method of accounting to comply 
with these final regulations.
    For purposes of the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 
3507(c)) (PRA), the reporting burden associated with the collection of 
information for the election statement and Form 3115 will be reflected 
in the PRA submission associated with the income tax returns under the 
OMB control number 1545-0074 (in the case of individual filers of Form 
3115) and 1545-0123 (in the case of business filers of Form 3115).
    In 2018, the IRS released and invited comment on a draft of Form 
3115 in order to give members of the public the opportunity to benefit 
from certain specific provisions made to the Code. The IRS received no 
comments on the forms during the comment period. Consequently, the IRS 
made the forms available in January 2019 for use by the public. The IRS 
notes that Form 3115 applies to changes of accounting methods generally 
and is therefore broader than sections 263A, 448, 460 and 471.
    As discussed earlier, the reporting burdens associated with the 
proposed regulations are included in the aggregated burden estimates 
for OMB control numbers 1545-0074 (in the case of individual filers of 
Form 3115), 1545-0123 (in the case of business filers of Form 3115 
subject to Revenue Procedure 2019-43 and business filers that make the 
election under proposed Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B)). The overall 
burden estimates associated with these OMB control numbers are 
aggregate amounts related to the entire package of forms associated 
with the applicable OMB control number and will include, but not 
isolate, the estimated burden of the tax forms that will be created or 
revised as a result of the information collections in these 
regulations. These numbers are therefore not specific to the burden 
imposed by these regulations. The burdens have been reported for other 
income tax regulations that rely on the same information collections 
and the Treasury Department and the IRS urge readers to recognize that 
these numbers are duplicates and to guard against overcounting the 
burdens imposed by tax provisions prior to the TCJA. No burden 
estimates specific to the forms affected by the regulations are 
currently available. For the OMB control numbers discussed in the 
preceding paragraphs, the Treasury Department and the IRS estimate PRA 
burdens on a taxpayer-type basis rather than a provision-specific 
basis. Those estimates capture both changes made by the TCJA and those 
that arise out of discretionary authority exercised in the final 
regulations and other regulations that affect the compliance burden for 
that form.

II. Regulatory Flexibility Act

    The Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) (RFA) imposes 
certain requirements with respect to federal rules that are subject to 
the notice and comment requirements of section 553(b) of the 
Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. 551 et seq.) and that are likely 
to have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small 
entities. Unless an agency determines that a proposal is not likely to 
have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small 
entities, section 603 of the RFA requires the agency to present an 
initial regulatory flexibility analysis (IRFA) of the proposed rules. 
At the proposed rule stage, the Treasury Department and the IRS had not 
determined whether the proposed rules, when finalized, would likely 
have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small 
entities. The determination of whether the voluntary exemptions under 
sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471, and the regulations providing 
guidance with respect to such exemptions, will have a significant 
economic impact on a substantial number of small entities requires 
further study. However, because there is a possibility of significant 
economic impact on a substantial number of small entities, an IRFA was 
provided at the proposed rule stage. In accordance with section 604 of 
the RFA, following is the final regulatory flexibility analysis.
1. Reasons for and Objectives of the Rule
    As discussed earlier in the preamble, these regulations largely 
implement voluntary exemptions that relieve small business taxpayers 
from otherwise applicable restrictions and requirements under sections 
263A, 448, 460, and 471.
    Section 448 provides a general restriction for C corporations and 
partnerships with C corporation partners from using the cash method of 
accounting, and sections 263A, 460 and 471 impose specific rules on 
uniform capitalization of direct and indirect production costs, the 
percentage of completion method for long-term contracts, and accounting 
for inventory costs, respectively. Section 13102 of TCJA provided new 
statutory exemptions from certain of these rules and expanded the scope 
of existing statutory exemptions from certain of these rules to reduce 
compliance burdens for small taxpayers. The regulations clarify the 
exemption qualification requirements and provide guidance with respect 
to the applicable methods of accounting should a taxpayer choose to 
apply one or more exemptions.
    The objective of the regulations is to provide clarity and 
certainty for small business taxpayers implementing the exemptions. 
Under the Code, small business taxpayers were able to implement these 
provisions for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017 (or, in 
the case of section 460, for contracts entered into after December 31, 
2017) even in the absence of these regulations. Thus, the Treasury 
Department and the IRS expect that, at the time these regulations are 
published, many small business taxpayers may have already implemented 
some aspects of the regulations.
2. Significant Issues Raised by the Public Comments in Response to the 
IRFA and Comments Filed by the Chief Counsel for Advocacy of the Small 
Business Administration
    No public comments were received in response to the IRFA. 
Additionally, no comments were filed by the Chief Counsel for Advocacy 
of the Small Business Administration in response to the proposed 
regulations.
3. Affected Small Entities
    The voluntary exemptions under sections 263A, 448, 460 and 471 
generally apply to taxpayers that meet the $25 million (adjusted for 
inflation) gross receipts test in section 448(c) and

[[Page 262]]

are otherwise subject to general rules under sections 263A, 448, 460, 
or 471.
A. Section 263A
    The Treasury Department and the IRS expect that the addition of 
section 263A(i) will expand the number of small business taxpayers 
exempted from the requirement to capitalize costs, including interest, 
under section 263A. Under section 263A(i), taxpayers (other than tax 
shelters) that meet the $25 million (adjusted for inflation) gross 
receipts test in section 448(c) can choose to deduct certain costs that 
are otherwise required to be capitalized to the basis of property. 
Section 263A applies to taxpayers that are producers, resellers, and 
taxpayers with self-constructed assets. The Treasury Department and the 
IRS estimate that there are between 3,200,000 and 3,575,000 respondents 
with gross receipts of not more than $25 million (adjusted for 
inflation) that have inventories. The Treasury Department and the IRS 
estimate that of these taxpayers there are between 28,900 and 38,900 
respondents with gross receipts of not more than $25 million (adjusted 
for inflation) that are eligible to change their method of accounting 
to no longer capitalize costs under section 263A. These estimates come 
from information collected on: Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold, and 
attached to Form 1120, U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, Form 1065, 
U.S. Return of Partnership Income or Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax 
Return for an S Corporation, on which the taxpayer also indicated it 
had additional section 263A costs. The Treasury Department and the IRS 
do not have readily available data to measure the prevalence of 
entities with self-constructed assets. In addition, these data also do 
not include other business entities, such as a business reported on 
Schedule C, Profit or Loss Form Business, of an individual's Form 1040, 
U.S. Individual Income Tax Return.
    Under section 263A, as modified by the TCJA, small business 
entities that qualified for Section 263A small reseller exception will 
no longer be able to use this exception. The Treasury Department and 
the IRS estimate that nearly all taxpayers that qualified for the small 
reseller exception will qualify for the small business taxpayer 
exemption under section 263A(i) since the small reseller exception 
utilized a $10 million gross receipts test. The Treasury Department and 
the IRS estimate that there are between 28,900 and 38,900 respondents 
with gross receipts of not more than $25 million that are eligible for 
the exemption under section 263A(i). These estimates come from 
information collected on: Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold, and attached 
to Form 1120, U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, Form 1065, U.S. 
Return of Partnership Income or Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax Return for 
an S Corporation on which the taxpayer also indicated it had additional 
section 263A costs. These data provide an upper bound for the number of 
taxpayers affected by the repeal of the small reseller exception and 
enactment of section 263A(i) because the data includes taxpayers that 
were not previously eligible for the small reseller exception, such as 
producers and taxpayers with gross receipts of more than $10 million.
    The regulations modify the $50 million gross receipts test in Sec.  
1.263A-1(d)(3)(ii)(B)(1) by using the Section 448 Gross Receipts Test. 
The $50 million gross receipts amount is used by taxpayers to determine 
whether they are eligible to treat negative adjustments as additional 
section 263A costs for purposes of the simplified production method 
(SPM) under section 263A. The Treasury Department and the IRS do not 
have readily available data to measure the prevalence of entities using 
the SPM.
    Section 1.263A-9 modifies the current regulation to increase the 
eligibility threshold to $25 million for the election permitting 
taxpayers to use the highest applicable Federal rate as a substitute 
for the weighted average interest rate when tracing debt for purposes 
of capitalizing interest under section 263A(f). The Treasury Department 
and the IRS estimate that there are between 28,900 and 38,900 
respondents with gross receipts of not more than $25 million that are 
eligible to make this election. These estimates come from information 
collected on: Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold, attached to Form 1120, 
U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, Form 1065, U.S. Return of 
Partnership Income or Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax Return for an S 
Corporation, on which the taxpayer also indicated it had additional 
section 263A costs. The Treasury Department and the IRS expect that 
many taxpayers eligible to make the election for purposes of section 
263A(f) will instead elect the small business exemption under section 
263A(i). Additionally, taxpayers who chose to apply section 263A even 
though they qualify for the small business exemption under section 
263A(i) may not have interest expense required to be capitalized under 
section 263A(f). As a result, although these data do not include 
taxpayers with self-constructed assets that are eligible for the 
election, the Treasury Department and the IRS estimate that this data 
provides an upper bound for the number of eligible taxpayers.
B. Section 448
    The Treasury Department and the IRS expect that the changes to 
section 448(c) by the TCJA will expand the number of taxpayers 
permitted to use the cash method. Section 448(a) provides that C 
corporations, partnerships with C corporations as partners, and tax 
shelters are not permitted to use the cash method of accounting; 
however section 448(c), as amended by the TCJA, provides that C 
corporations or partnerships with C corporations as partners, other 
than tax shelters, are not restricted from using the cash method if 
their average annual gross receipts are $25 million (adjusted for 
inflation) or less. Prior to the amendments made by the TCJA, the 
applicable gross receipts threshold was $5 million. Section 448 does 
not apply to S corporations, partnerships without a C corporation 
partner, or any other business entities (including sole proprietorships 
reported on an individual's Form 1040). The Treasury Department and the 
IRS estimate that there are between 587,000 and 605,000 respondents 
with gross receipts of not more than $5 million presently using an 
accrual method, and between 70,000 and 76,500 respondents with gross 
receipts of more than $5 million but not more than $25 million that are 
permitted to use to the cash method. These estimates come from 
information collected on Form 1120, U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, 
Form 1065, U.S. Return of Partnership Income and Form 1120-S, U.S. 
Income Tax Return for an S Corporation.
    Under the regulations, taxpayers that would meet the gross receipts 
test of section 448(c) and seem to be eligible to use the cash method 
but for the definition of ``syndicate'' under section 448(d)(3), may 
elect to use the allocated taxable income or loss of the immediately 
preceding taxable year to determine whether the taxpayer is a 
``syndicate'' for purposes of section 448(d)(3) for the current taxable 
year. The Treasury Department and IRS estimate that 224,165 respondents 
may potentially make this election. This estimate comes from 
information collected on the Form 1065, U.S. Return of Partnership 
Income and Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax Return for an S Corporation., 
and the Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold, attached to the Forms 1065 and 
1120-S. The Treasury Department and the IRS estimate that these data 
provide an upper bound for the number of eligible taxpayers because

[[Page 263]]

not all taxpayers eligible to make the election will choose to do so.
C. Section 460
    The Treasury Department and the IRS expect that the modification of 
section 460(e)(1)(B) by the TCJA will expand the number of taxpayers 
exempted from the requirement to apply the percentage-of-completion 
method to long-term construction contracts. Under section 460(e)(1)(B), 
as modified by the TCJA, taxpayers (other than tax shelters) that meet 
the $25 million (adjusted for inflation) gross receipts test in section 
448(c) are not required to use PCM to account for income from a long-
term construction contract expected to be completed in two years. Prior 
to the modification of section 460(e)(1)(B) by the TCJA, a separate $10 
million dollar gross receipts test applied. The Treasury Department and 
the IRS estimate that there are between 15,400 and 19,500 respondents 
with gross receipts of between $10 million and $25 million who are 
eligible to change their method of accounting to apply the modified 
exemption. This estimate comes from information collected on the Form 
1120, U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, Form 1065, U.S. Return of 
Partnership Income and Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax Return for an S 
Corporation in which the taxpayer indicated its principal business 
activity was construction (NAICS codes beginning with 23). These data 
available do not distinguish between long-term contracts and other 
contracts, and also do not include other business entities that do not 
file Form 1120, U.S. Corporation Income Tax Return, Form 1065, U.S. 
Return of Partnership Income, and Form 1120-S, U.S. Income Tax Return 
for an S Corporation, such as a business reported on Schedule C, Profit 
or Loss from Business, of an individual's Form 1040, U.S. Individual 
Income Tax Return.
D. Section 471
    The Treasury Department and the IRS expect that the addition of 
section 471(c) will expand the number of taxpayers exempted from the 
requirement to take inventories under section 471(a). Under section 
471(c), taxpayers (other than tax shelters) that meet the $25 million 
(adjusted for inflation) gross receipts test in section 448(c) can 
choose to apply certain simplified inventory methods rather than those 
otherwise required by section 471(a). The Treasury Department and the 
IRS estimate that there are between 3,200,000 and 3,575,000 respondents 
with gross receipts of not more than $25 million that are exempted from 
the requirement to take inventories, and will treat their inventory 
either as non-incidental materials and supplies, or conform their 
inventory method to the method reflected in their AFS, or if they do 
not have an AFS, in their books and records. This estimate comes from 
data collected on the Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold. Within that set 
of taxpayers, the Treasury Department and the IRS estimate that there 
are between 10,500 and 11,500 respondents that may choose to conform 
their method of accounting for inventories to their method for 
inventory reflected in their AFS. This estimate comes from IRS-
collected data on taxpayers that filed the Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods 
Sold, in addition to a Schedule M3, Net Income (Loss) Reconciliation 
for Corporations With Total Assets of $10 Million or More, that 
indicated they had an AFS. These data provide a lower bound because 
they do not include other business entities, such as a business 
reported on Schedule C, Profit or Loss from Business, of an 
individual's Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return, that are not 
required to file the Form 1125-A, Cost of Goods Sold.
4. Projected Reporting, Recordkeeping, Other Compliance Requirements, 
and Costs
    The Treasury Department and the IRS have not performed an analysis 
with respect to the projected reporting, recordkeeping, and other 
compliance requirements associated with the statutory exemptions under 
sections 263A, 448, 460, and 471 and the final regulations implementing 
these exemptions. The taxpayer may expend time to read and understand 
the final regulations. The cost to comply with these regulations are 
reflected in modest reporting activities. Taxpayers needing to make 
method changes pursuant to these regulations will be required to file a 
Form 3115. The Treasury Department and the IRS are minimizing the cost 
to comply with the regulations by providing administrative procedures 
that allow taxpayers to make multiple changes in method of accounting 
related to the statutory exemptions under sections 263A, 448, 460, and 
471 for the same tax year on a single Form 3115, instead of filing a 
separate Form 3115 for each exemption. Although there is a nominal 
implementation cost, the Treasury Department and the IRS anticipate 
that the statutory exemptions and the final regulations implementing 
these exemptions will reduce overall the reporting, recordkeeping, and 
other compliance requirements of affected taxpayers relative to the 
requirements that exist under the general rules in sections 263A, 448, 
460, and 471. For example, a taxpayer that applies section 
471(c)(1)(B)(i) to treat inventory as non-incidental materials and 
supplies will only need to capitalize the direct material cost of 
producing inventory instead of also having to capitalize the direct 
labor and indirect costs of producing inventory under the general rules 
of section 471(a). Additionally, a taxpayer that applies section 
471(c)(1)(B)(ii) can follow the inventory method used in its applicable 
financial statement, or its books and records if it does not have an 
applicable financial statement, in lieu of keeping a separate inventory 
method under the general rules of section 471(a).
5. Steps Taken To Minimize the Economic Impact on Small Entities
    As discussed earlier in the preamble, section 448 provides a 
general restriction for C corporations, partnerships with C corporation 
partners, and tax shelters from using the cash method of accounting, 
and sections 263A, 460 and 471 impose specific rules on uniform 
capitalization of direct and indirect production costs, the percentage 
of completion method for long-term contracts, and accounting for 
inventory costs, respectively. Section 13102 of TCJA provided new 
statutory exemptions and expanded the scope of existing statutory 
exemptions from these rules to reduce compliance burdens for small 
taxpayers (for example, reducing the burdens associated with applying 
complex accrual rules under section 451 and 461, maintaining 
inventories, identifying and tracking costs that are allocable to 
property produced or acquired for resale, identifying and tracking 
costs that are allocable to long-term contracts, applying the look-back 
method under section 460, etc.). For example, a small business taxpayer 
with average gross receipts of $20 million may pay an accountant an 
annual fee of approximately $2,375 to perform a 25 hour analysis to 
determine the section 263A costs that are capitalized to inventory 
produced during the year. If this taxpayer chooses to apply the 
exemption under section 263A and these regulations, it will no longer 
need to pay an accountant for the annual section 263A analysis.
    The regulations implementing these exemptions are completely 
voluntary because small business taxpayers may continue using an 
accrual method of accounting, and applying the general rules under 
sections 263A, 460 and 471 if they so choose. Thus, the exemptions 
increase the flexibility small business taxpayers have regarding their 
accounting methods relative to other

[[Page 264]]

businesses. The regulations provide clarity and certainty for small 
business taxpayers implementing the exemptions.
    As described in more detail earlier in the preamble, the Treasury 
Department and the IRS considered a number of alternatives under the 
final regulations. For example, in providing rules related to inventory 
exemption in section 471(c)(1)(B)(i), which permits the taxpayer to 
treat its inventory as non-incidental materials and supplies, the 
Treasury Department and the IRS considered whether inventoriable costs 
should be recovered by (i) using an approach similar to the approach 
set forth under Revenue Procedure 2001-10 (2001-2 IRB 272) and Revenue 
Procedure 2002-28 (2002-28 IRB 815), which provided that inventory 
treated as non-incidental materials and supplies was ``used and 
consumed,'' and thus recovered through costs of goods sold by a cash 
basis taxpayer, when the inventory items were provided to a customer, 
or when the taxpayer paid for the items, whichever was later, or (ii) 
using an alternative approach that treated inventory as ``used and 
consumed'' and thus recovered through costs of goods sold by the 
taxpayer, in a taxable year prior to the year in which the inventory 
item is provided to the customer (for example, in the taxable year in 
which an inventory item is acquired or produced). The alternative 
approach described in (ii) would produce a savings equal the amount of 
the cost recovery multiplied by an applicable discount rate (determined 
based on the number of years the cost of goods sold recovery would be 
accelerated under this alternative). The Treasury Department and the 
IRS interpret section 471(c)(1)(B)(i) and its legislative history 
generally as codifying the rules provided in the administrative 
guidance existing at the time TCJA was enacted. Based on this 
interpretation, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined 
that section 471(c) materials and supplies are ``used and consumed'' in 
the taxable year the taxpayer provides the goods to a customer, and are 
recovered through costs of goods sold in that year or the taxable year 
in which the cost of the goods is paid or incurred (in accordance with 
the taxpayer's method of accounting), whichever is later. The Treasury 
Department and the IRS do not believe this approach creates or imposes 
undue burdens on taxpayers.

III. Section 7805(f)

    Pursuant to section 7805(f) of the Code, the notice of proposed 
rulemaking preceding this Treasury Decision was submitted to the Chief 
Counsel of the Office of Advocacy of the Small Business Administration 
for comment on its impact on small business.

IV. Executive Order 13132: Federalism

    Executive Order 13132 (entitled ``Federalism'') prohibits an agency 
from publishing any rule that has federalism implications if the rule 
either imposes substantial, direct compliance costs on state and local 
governments, and is not required by statute, or preempts state law, 
unless the agency meets the consultation and funding requirements of 
section 6 of the Executive Order. This final rule does not have 
federalism implications and does not impose substantial, direct 
compliance costs on state and local governments or preempt state law 
within the meaning of the Executive Order.

Drafting Information

    The principal author of these regulations is Anna Gleysteen, IRS 
Office of the Associate Chief Counsel (Income Tax and Accounting). 
However, other personnel from the Treasury Department and the IRS 
participated in their development.

List of Subjects in 26 CFR Part 1

    Income taxes, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements.

Amendments to the Regulations

    Accordingly, 26 CFR part 1 is amended as follows:

PART 1--INCOME TAXES

0
Paragraph 1. The authority citation for part 1 continues to read in 
part as follows:

    Authority: 26 U.S.C. 7805 * * *


0
Par. 2. Section 1.263A-0 is amended by:
0
1. Revising the entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
1(b)(1).
0
2. Redesignating the entries in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
1(j), (k), and (l) as the entries for Sec.  1.263A-1(k), (l), and (m).
0
3. Adding a new entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-1(j).
0
4. Revising the newly designated entries for Sec.  1.263A-1(k), (l), 
and adding an entry for (m)(6).
0
5. Revising the entries in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
3(a)(2)(ii).
0
6. Adding entries for Sec.  1.263A-3(a)(5) and revising the entry for 
Sec.  1.263A-3(b).
0
7. Redesignating the entries in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
4(a)(3) and (4) as the entries for Sec.  1.263A-4(a)(4) and (5).
0
8. Adding in the table of contents a new entry for Sec.  1.263A-
4(a)(3).
0
9. Revising the entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-4(d) 
introductory text.
0
10. Redesignating the entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
4(d)(5) as the entry for Sec.  1.263A-4(d)(7).
0
11. Adding in the table of contents a new entry for Sec.  1.263A-
4(d)(5).
0
12. Adding an entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-4(d)(6).
0
13. Adding an entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-4(e)(5).
0
14. Revising the entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-4(f) 
introductory text.
0
15. Adding an entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-4(g).
0
16. Revising the entry in the table of contents for Sec.  1.263A-
7(a)(4).
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-0  Outline of regulations under section 263A.

* * * * *
Sec.  1.263A-1 Uniform Capitalization of Costs.

* * * * *
    (b) * * *
    (1) Small business taxpayers.
* * * * *
    (j) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers.
    (1) In general.
    (2) Application of the section 448(c) gross receipts test.
    (i) In general.
    (ii) Gross receipts of individuals, etc.
    (iii) Partners and S corporation shareholders.
    (iv) Examples.
    (A) Example 1
    (B) Example 2
    (3) Change in method of accounting.
    (i) In general.
    (ii) Prior section 263A method change.
    (k) Special rules
    (1) Costs provided by a related person.
    (i) In general
    (ii) Exceptions
    (2) Optional capitalization of period costs.
    (i) In general.
    (ii) Period costs eligible for capitalization.
    (3) Trade or business application
    (4) Transfers with a principal purpose of tax avoidance. 
[Reserved]
    (l) Change in method of accounting.
    (1) In general.
    (2) Scope limitations.
    (3) Audit protection.
    (4) Section 481(a) adjustment.
    (5) Time for requesting change.
    (m) * * *
    (6) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers.

Sec.  1.263A-3 Rules Relating to Property Acquired for Resale.

    (a) * * *
    (2) * * *
    (ii) Exemption for small business taxpayers.
* * * * *
    (5) De minimis production activities.

[[Page 265]]

    (i) In general.
    (ii) Definition of gross receipts to determine de minimis 
production activities.
    (iii) Example.
    (b) [Reserved].
* * * * *

Sec.  1.263A-4 Rules for Property Produced in a Farming Business.

    (a) * * *
    (3) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers.
* * * * *
    (d) Election not to have section 263A apply under section 
263A(d)(3).
* * * * *
    (5) Revocation of section 263A(d)(3) election to permit 
exemption under section 263A(i).
    (6) Change from applying exemption under section 263A(i) to 
making a section 263A(d)(3) election.
* * * * *
    (e) * * *
    (5) Special temporary rule for citrus plants lost by reason of 
casualty.
    (f) Change in method of accounting.
* * * * *
    (g) Effective date.
    (1) In general.
    (2) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97).

Sec.  1.263A-7 Changing a method of accounting under section 263A.
    (a) * * *
    (4) Applicability dates.
    (i) In general.
    (ii) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97).
* * * * *

0
Par. 3. Section 1.263A-1 is amended by:
0
1. Revising paragraph (a)(2) subject heading.
0
2. In paragraph (a)(2)(i), revising the second sentence and adding a 
new third sentence.
0
3. Revising paragraph (b)(1).
0
4. In the second sentence of paragraph (d)(3)(ii)(B)(1), the language 
``Sec.  1.263A-3(b)'' is removed and the language ``Sec.  1.263A-
1(j)''is added in its place.
0
5. Redesignating paragraphs (j) through (l) as paragraphs (k) through 
(m).
0
6. Adding a new paragraph (j).
0
7. In newly-redesignated paragraph (m), adding paragraph (m)(6).
    The revisions and addition read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-1  Uniform capitalization of costs.

    (a) * * *
    (2) Applicability dates. (i) * * * In the case of property that is 
inventory in the hands of the taxpayer, however, these sections are 
applicable for taxable years beginning after December 31, 1993. The 
small business taxpayer exception described in paragraph (b)(1) of this 
section and set forth in paragraph (j) of this section is applicable 
for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017. * * *
* * * * *
    (b) * * * (1) Small business taxpayers. For taxable years beginning 
after December 31, 2017, see section 263A(i) and paragraph (j) of this 
section for an exemption for certain small business taxpayers from the 
requirements of section 263A.
* * * * *
    (j) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers--(1) In general. 
A taxpayer, other than a tax shelter prohibited from using the cash 
receipts and disbursements method of accounting under section 
448(a)(3), that meets the gross receipts test under section 448(c) and 
Sec.  1.448-2(c) (section 448(c) gross receipts test) for any taxable 
year (small business taxpayer) is not required to capitalize costs 
under section 263A to any real or tangible personal property produced, 
and any real or personal property described in section 1221(a)(1) 
acquired for resale, during that taxable year. This section 448(c) 
gross receipts test applies even if the taxpayer is not otherwise 
subject to section 448(a).
    (2) Application of the section 448(c) gross receipts test--(i) In 
general. In the case of any taxpayer that is not a corporation or a 
partnership, and except as provided in paragraphs (j)(2)(ii) and (iii) 
of this section, the section 448(c) gross receipts test is applied in 
the same manner as if each trade or business of the taxpayer were a 
corporation or partnership.
    (ii) Gross receipts of individuals, etc. Except when the 
aggregation rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, the gross receipts of a 
taxpayer other than a corporation or partnership are the amount derived 
from all trades or businesses of such taxpayer. Amounts not related to 
a trade or business are excluded from the gross receipts of the 
taxpayer. For example, an individual taxpayer's gross receipts do not 
include inherently personal amounts, such as personal injury awards or 
settlements with respect to an injury of the individual taxpayer, 
disability benefits, Social Security benefits received by the taxpayer 
during the taxable year, and wages received as an employee that are 
reported on Form W-2.
    (iii) Partners and S corporation shareholders. Except when the 
aggregation rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, each partner in a 
partnership includes a share of the partnership's gross receipts in 
proportion to such partner's distributive share, as determined under 
section 704, of items of gross income that were taken into account by 
the partnership under section 703. Similarly, a shareholder of an S 
corporation includes such shareholder's pro rata share of S corporation 
gross receipts taken into account by the S corporation under section 
1363(b).
    (iv) Examples. The operation of this paragraph (j) is illustrated 
by the following examples:
    (A) Example 1. Taxpayer A is an individual who operates two 
separate and distinct trades or business that are reported on Schedule 
C, Profit or Loss from Business, of A's Federal income tax return. For 
2020, one trade or business has annual average gross receipts of $5 
million, and the other trade or business has average annual gross 
receipts of $35 million. Under paragraph (j)(2)(ii) of this section, 
for 2020, neither of A's trades or businesses meets the gross receipts 
test of paragraph (j)(2) of this section ($5 million + $35 million = 
$40 million, which is greater than the inflation-adjusted gross 
receipts test amount for 2020, which is $26 million).
    (B) Example 2. Taxpayer B is an individual who operates three 
separate and distinct trades or business that are reported on Schedule 
C of B's Federal income tax return. For 2020, Business X is a retail 
store with average annual gross receipts of $15 million, Business Y is 
a dance studio with average annual gross receipts of $6 million, and 
Business Z is a car repair shop with average annual gross receipts of 
$12 million. Under paragraph (j)(2)(ii) of this section, B's gross 
receipts are the combined amount derived from all three of B's trades 
or businesses. Therefore, for 2020, X, Y and Z do not meet the gross 
receipts test of paragraph (j)(2)(i) of this section ($15 million + $6 
million + $12 million = $33 million, which is greater than the 
inflation-adjusted gross receipts test amount for 2020, which is $26 
million).
    (3) Change in method of accounting--(i) In general. A change from 
applying the small business taxpayer exemption under paragraph (j) of 
this section to not applying the exemption under this paragraph (j), or 
vice versa, is a change in method of accounting under section 446(e) 
and Sec.  1.446-1(e). A taxpayer changing its method of accounting 
under paragraph (j) of this section may do so only with the consent of 
the Commissioner as required under section 446(e) and Sec.  1.446-1. In 
the case of any taxpayer required by this section to change its method 
of accounting for any taxable year, the change shall be treated as a 
change initiated by the taxpayer. For rules relating to the clear 
reflection

[[Page 266]]

of income and the pattern of consistent treatment of an item, see 
section 446 and Sec.  1.446-1. The amount of the net section 481(a) 
adjustment and the adjustment period necessary to implement a change in 
method of accounting required under this section are determined under 
Sec.  1.446-1(e) and the applicable administrative procedures to obtain 
the Commissioner's consent to change a method of accounting as 
published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (see Revenue Procedure 2015-
13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see also Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of 
this chapter).
    (ii) Automatic consent for certain method changes. Certain changes 
in method of accounting made under paragraph (j) of this section may be 
made under the procedures to obtain the automatic consent of the 
Commissioner to change a method of accounting. See Revenue Procedure 
2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see also Sec.  601.601(d)(2) 
of this chapter)). In certain situations, special terms and conditions 
may apply.
* * * * *
    (m) * * *
    (6) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers. The second and 
third sentence in paragraph (a)(2)(i), paragraphs (b)(1) and (j) of 
this section apply to taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 
2021. However, for a taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, 
and before January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may apply the paragraphs 
described in the first sentence of this paragraph (m)(6), provided that 
the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules contained in the 
regulations under section 263A for such taxable year and all subsequent 
taxable years.

0
Par. 4. Section 1.263A-2 is amended by:
0
1. Adding a sentence at the end of paragraph (a) introductory text.
0
2. Revising paragraph (a)(1)(ii)(C).
0
3. Revising paragraph (g) subject heading.
0
4. Adding paragraph (g)(4).
    The additions and revisions read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-2  Rules relating to property produced by the taxpayer.

    (a) * * * For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017, see 
Sec.  1.263A-1(j) for an exception in the case of a small business 
taxpayer that meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and Sec.  
1.448-2(c).
    (1) * * *
    (ii) * * *
    (C) Home construction contracts. Section 263A applies to a home 
construction contract unless that contract will be completed within two 
years of the contract commencement date, and, for contracts entered 
into after December 31, 2017, in taxable years ending after December 
31, 2017, the taxpayer meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) 
and Sec.  1.448-2(c) for the taxable year in which such contract is 
entered into. Except as otherwise provided in this paragraph 
(a)(1)(ii)(C), section 263A applies to such a contract even if the 
contractor is not considered the owner of the property produced under 
the contract under Federal income tax principles.
* * * * *
    (g) Applicability dates.* * *
    (4) The rules set forth in the last sentence of the introductory 
text of paragraph (a) of this section and in paragraph (a)(1)(ii)(C) of 
this section apply for taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 
2021. However, for a taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, 
and before January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may apply the paragraphs 
described in the first sentence of this paragraph (g)(4), provided that 
the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules contained in the 
regulations under section 263A for such taxable year and all subsequent 
taxable years.

0
Par. 5. Section 1.263A-3 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (a)(1), by revising the second sentence.
0
2. By revising paragraphs (a)(2)(ii) and (iii).
0
4. In paragraph (a)(3), by removing the language ``small reseller'' and 
adding in its place the language ``small business taxpayer''.
0
5. In paragraph (a)(4)(ii), removing the language ``(within the meaning 
of paragraph (a)(2)(iii) of this section)'' and adding in its place the 
language ``(within the meaning of paragraph (a)(5) of this section)''.
0
6. By adding paragraph (a)(5).
0
7. By removing and reserving paragraph (b).
0
8. By revising paragraph (f).
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-3  Rules relating to property acquired for resale.

    (a) * * * (1) * * * However, for taxable years beginning after 
December 31, 2017, a small business taxpayer, as defined in Sec.  
1.263A-1(j), is not required to apply section 263A in that taxable 
year. * * *
    (2) * * *
    (ii) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers. For taxable 
years beginning after December 31, 2017, see Sec.  1.263A-1(j) for an 
exception in the case of a small business taxpayer that meets the gross 
receipts test of section 448(c) and Sec.  1.448-2(c).
    (iii) De minimis production activities. See paragraph (a)(5) of 
this section for rules relating to an exception for resellers with de 
minimis production activities.
* * * * *
    (5) De minimis production activities--(i) In general. In 
determining whether a taxpayer's production activities are de minimis, 
all facts and circumstances must be considered. For example, the 
taxpayer must consider the volume of the production activities in its 
trade or business. Production activities are presumed de minimis if--
    (A) The gross receipts from the sale of the property produced by 
the reseller are less than 10 percent of the total gross receipts of 
the trade or business; and
    (B) The labor costs allocable to the trade or business's production 
activities are less than 10 percent of the reseller's total labor costs 
allocable to its trade or business.
    (ii) Definition of gross receipts to determine de minimis 
production activities. Gross receipts has the same definition as for 
purposes of the gross receipts test under Sec.  1.448-2(c), except that 
gross receipts are measured at the trade-or-business level rather than 
at the single-employer level.
    (iii) Example: Reseller with de minimis production activities. 
Taxpayer N is in the retail grocery business. In 2019, N's average 
annual gross receipts for the three previous taxable years are greater 
than the gross receipts test of section 448(c). Thus, N is not exempt 
from the requirement to capitalize costs under section 263A. N's 
grocery stores typically contain bakeries where customers may purchase 
baked goods produced by N. N produces no other goods in its retail 
grocery business. N's gross receipts from its bakeries are 5 percent of 
the entire grocery business. N's labor costs from its bakeries are 3 
percent of its total labor costs allocable to the entire grocery 
business. Because both ratios are less than 10 percent, N's production 
activities are de minimis. Further, because N's production activities 
are incident to its resale activities, N may use the simplified resale 
method, as provided in paragraph (a)(4)(ii) of this section.
* * * * *
    (f) Applicability dates. (1) Paragraphs (d)(3)(i)(C)(3), 
(d)(3)(i)(D)(3), and (d)(3)(i)(E)(3) of this section apply for taxable 
years ending on or after January 13, 2014.
    (2) The rules set forth in the second sentence of paragraph (a)(1) 
of this section, paragraphs (a)(2)(ii) and (iii) of

[[Page 267]]

this section, the third sentence of paragraph (a)(3) of this section, 
and paragraphs (a)(4)(ii) and (a)(5) of this section apply for taxable 
years beginning on or after January 5, 2021 . However, for a taxable 
year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 2021, a 
taxpayer may apply the paragraphs described in the first sentence of 
this paragraph (f)(2), provided the taxpayer follows all the applicable 
rules contained in the regulations under section 263A for such taxable 
year and all subsequent taxable years.

0
Par. 6. Section 1.263A-4 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (a)(1), by revising the last sentence.
0
2. In paragraph (a)(2)(ii)(A)(1), by removing the language ``section 
464(c)'' and adding in its place the language with ``section 461(k)''.
0
3. By redesignating paragraphs (a)(3) and (4) as paragraphs (a)(4) and 
(5) respectively.
0
4. By adding new paragraph (a)(3).
0
5. By revising the paragraph (d) subject heading.
0
6. In paragraph (d)(1), by revising the last sentence and adding a new 
sentence at the end of the paragraph.
0
7. In paragraph (d)(3)(i), by removing the last sentence.
0
8. By revising paragraph (d)(3)(ii).
0
9. By redesignating paragraph (d)(5) as paragraph (d)(7).
0
10. By adding new paragraphs (d)(5) and (6)
0
11. By adding paragraph (e)(5).
0
12. By redesignating paragraph (f) as paragraph (g).
0
13. By adding new paragraph (f).
0
14. By revising the subject headings of newly-redesignated paragraphs 
(g) and (g)(1), and by revising newly-designated paragraph (g)(2).
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-4  Rules for property produced in a farming business.

    (a) * * * (1) * * * Except as provided in paragraphs (a)(2), 
(a)(3), and (e) of this section, taxpayers must capitalize the costs of 
producing all plants and animals unless the election described in 
paragraph (d) of this section is made.
* * * * *
    (3) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers. For taxable 
years beginning after December 31, 2017, see Sec.  1.263A-1(j) for an 
exception in the case of a small business taxpayer that meets the gross 
receipts test of section 448(c) and Sec.  1.448-2(c).
* * * * *
    (d) Election not to have section 263A apply under section 
263A(d)(3)--(1) * * * Except as provided in paragraph (d)(5) and (6) of 
this section, the election is a method of accounting under section 446. 
An election made under section 263A(d)(3) and this paragraph (d) is 
revocable only with the consent of the Commissioner.
* * * * *
    (3) * * *
    (ii) Nonautomatic election. Except as provided in paragraphs (d)(5) 
and (6) of this section, a taxpayer that does not make the election 
under this paragraph (d) as provided in paragraph (d)(3)(i) of this 
section must obtain the consent of the Commissioner to make the 
election by filing a Form 3115, Application for Change in Method of 
Accounting, in accordance with Sec.  1.446-1(e)(3).
* * * * *
    (5) Revocation of section 263A(d)(3) election to permit exemption 
under section 263A(i). A taxpayer that elected under section 263A(d)(3) 
and paragraph (d)(3) of this section not to have section 263A apply to 
any plant produced in a farming business that wants to revoke its 
section 263A(d)(3) election, and in the same taxable year, apply the 
small business taxpayer exemption under section 263A(i) and Sec.  
1.263A-1(j) may revoke the election in accordance with the applicable 
administrative guidance as published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin 
(see Sec.  601.601(d)(2)(ii)(b) of this chapter). A revocation of the 
taxpayer's section 263A(d)(3) election under this paragraph (d)(5) is 
not a change in method of accounting under sections 446 and 481 and 
Sec. Sec.  1.446-1 and 1.481-1 through 1.481-5.
    (6) Change from applying exemption under section 263A(i) to making 
a section 263A(d)(3) election. A taxpayer whose method of accounting is 
to not capitalize costs under section 263A based on the exemption under 
section 263A(i), that becomes ineligible to use the exemption under 
section 263A(i), and is eligible and wants to elect under section 
263A(d)(3) for this same taxable year to not capitalize costs under 
section 263A for any plant produced in the taxpayer's farming business, 
must make the election in accordance with the applicable administrative 
guidance as published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (see Sec.  
601.601(d)(2)(ii)(b) of this chapter). An election under section 
263A(d)(3) made in accordance with this paragraph (d)(6) is not a 
change in method of accounting under sections 446 and 481 and 
Sec. Sec.  1.446-1 and 1.481-1 through 1.481-5.
* * * * *
    (e) * * *
    (5) Special temporary rule for citrus plants lost by reason of 
casualty. Section 263A(d)(2)(A) provides that if plants bearing an 
edible crop for human consumption were lost or damaged while in the 
hands of the taxpayer by reason of freezing temperatures, disease, 
drought, pests, or casualty, section 263A does not apply to any costs 
of the taxpayer of replanting plants bearing the same type of crop 
(whether on the same parcel of land on which such lost or damaged 
plants were located or any other parcel of land of the same acreage in 
the United States). The rules of this paragraph (e)(5) apply to certain 
costs that are paid or incurred after December 22, 2017, and on or 
before December 22, 2027, to replant citrus plants after the loss or 
damage of citrus plants. Notwithstanding paragraph (e)(2) of this 
section, in the case of replanting citrus plants after the loss or 
damage of citrus plants by reason of freezing temperatures, disease, 
drought, pests, or casualty, section 263A does not apply to replanting 
costs paid or incurred by a taxpayer other than the owner described in 
section 263A(d)(2)(A) if--
    (i) The owner described in section 263A(d)(2)(A) has an equity 
interest of not less than 50 percent in the replanted citrus plants at 
all times during the taxable year in which such amounts were paid or 
incurred and the taxpayer holds any part of the remaining equity 
interest; or
    (ii) The taxpayer acquired the entirety of the equity interest in 
the land of that owner described in section 263A(d)(2)(A) and on which 
land the lost or damaged citrus plants were located at the time of such 
loss or damage, and the replanting is on such land.
    (f) Change in method of accounting. Except as provided in 
paragraphs (d)(5) and (6) of this section, any change in a taxpayer's 
method of accounting necessary to comply with this section is a change 
in method of accounting to which the provisions of sections 446 and 481 
and Sec.  1.446-1 through 1.446-7 and Sec.  1.481-1 through Sec.  
1.481-3 apply.
    (g) Applicability dates--(1) In general. * * *
    (2) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97). 
Paragraphs (a)(3), (d)(5), (d)(6), and (e)(5) of this section apply for 
taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a 
taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 
2021, a taxpayer may apply the paragraphs described in the first 
sentence of this paragraph (g)(2), provided that the taxpayer follows 
all the applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 
263A for such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years.

[[Page 268]]


0
Par. 7. Sec.  1.263A-7 is amended:
0
1. By revising paragraph (a)(3)(i).
0
2. By redesignating paragraph (a)(4) as paragraph (a)(4)(i).
0
3. By adding a paragraph (a)(4) subject heading.
0
4. By revising the newly-designated paragraph (a)(4)(i) subject 
heading.
0
5. By adding paragraph (a)(4)(ii).
0
6. In paragraph (b)(1), by removing the language ``Rev. Proc. 97-27 
(1997-21 I.R.B.10)'' and adding in its place the language ``Revenue 
Procedure 2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419)''.
0
7. In paragraph (b)(2)(ii), by removing the language ``Rev. Proc. 2002-
9 (2002-1 C.B. 327) and Rev. Proc. 97-27 (1991-1 C.B. 680)'' and adding 
the language ``Revenue Procedure 2015-13, 2015-5 IRB 419 (or 
successor)'' in its place.
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-7  Changing a method of accounting under section 263A.

    (a) * * *
    (3) * * *
    (i) For taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017, resellers 
of real or personal property or producers of real or tangible personal 
property whose average annual gross receipts for the immediately 
preceding 3-taxable-year period, or lesser period if the taxpayer was 
not in existence for the three preceding taxable years, annualized as 
required, exceed the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and the 
accompanying regulations where the taxpayer was not subject to section 
263A in the prior taxable year;
* * * * *
    (4) Applicability dates--(i) In general.* * *
    (ii) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97). 
Paragraph (a)(3)(i) of this section applies to taxable years beginning 
on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a taxable year beginning 
after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may 
apply the paragraph described in the first sentence of this paragraph 
(a)(4)(ii), provided that the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules 
contained in the regulations under section 263A for such taxable year 
and all subsequent taxable years.
* * * * *

0
Par. 8. Section 1.263A-8 is amended by adding a sentence to the end of 
paragraph (a)(1) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-8  Requirement to capitalize interest.

    (a) * * * (1) * * * However, a taxpayer, other than a tax shelter 
prohibited from using the cash receipts and disbursements method of 
accounting under section 448(a)(3), that meets the gross receipts test 
of section 448(c) for the taxable year is not required to capitalize 
costs, including interest, under section 263A. See Sec.  1.263A-1(j).
* * * * *

0
Par. 9. Section 1.263A-9 is amended by adding a sentence to the end of 
paragraph (e)(2) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-9  The avoided cost method.

* * * * *
    (e) * * *
    (2) * * *A taxpayer is an eligible taxpayer for a taxable year for 
purposes of this paragraph (e) if the taxpayer is a small business 
taxpayer, as defined in Sec.  1.263A-1(j).
* * * * *

0
Par. 10. Section 1.263A-15 is amended by adding paragraph (a)(4) to 
read as follows:


Sec.  1.263A-15   Effective dates, transitional rules, and anti-abuse 
rule.

    (a) * * *
    (4) The last sentence of each of Sec.  1.263A-8(a)(1) and Sec.  
1.263A-9(e)(2) apply to taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 
2021. However, for a taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, 
and before January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may apply the last sentence of 
each of Sec.  1.263A-8(a)(1) and Sec.  1.263A-9(e)(2), provided that 
the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules contained in the 
regulations under section 263A for such taxable year and all subsequent 
taxable years.
* * * * *

0
Par. 11. Section 1.381(c)(5)-1 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (a)(6), by designating Examples 1 and 2 as paragraphs 
(a)(6)(i) and (ii), respectively.
0
2. In newly-designated paragraphs (a)(6)(i) and (ii), by redesignating 
the paragraphs in the first column as the paragraphs in the second 
column:

------------------------------------------------------------------------
              Old paragraphs                       New paragraphs
------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a)(6)(i)(i) and (ii).....................  (a)(6)(i)(A) and (B)
(a)(6)(ii)(i) and (ii)....................  (a)(6)(ii)(A) and (B)
------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
3. In newly designated paragraphs (a)(6)(ii)(A) and (B), by removing 
the language ``small reseller'' and adding in its place the language 
``small business taxpayer'' everywhere it appears.
0
4. By adding a sentence to the end of paragraph (f).
    The addition reads as follows:


Sec.  1.381(c)(5)-1  Inventory method.

* * * * *
    (f) * * * The designations of paragraphs (a)(6)(ii)(A) and (B) of 
this section and removal of the term ``small reseller'' and replacement 
with the term ``small business taxpayer'' apply to taxable years 
beginning on or after January 5, 2021.

0
Par. 12. Sec.  1.446-1 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (a)(4)(i), by revising the first sentence.
0
2. By revising paragraph (c)(2)(i).
0
3. By adding paragraph (c)(3).
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.446-1  General rule for methods of accounting.

    (a) * * *
    (4) * * *
    (i) Except in the case of a taxpayer qualifying as a small business 
taxpayer for the taxable year under section 471(c), in all cases in 
which the production, purchase or sale of merchandise of any kind is an 
income-producing factor, merchandise on hand (including finished goods, 
work in progress, raw materials, and supplies) at the beginning and end 
of the year shall be taken into account in computing the taxable income 
of the year. * * *
* * * * *
    (c) * * *
    (2) * * *
    (i) In any case in which it is necessary to use an inventory, the 
accrual method of accounting must be used with regard to purchases and 
sales unless:
    (A) The taxpayer qualifies as a small business taxpayer for the 
taxable year under section 471(c), or
    (B) Otherwise authorized under paragraph (c)(2)(ii) of this 
section.
* * * * *
    (3) Applicability date. The first sentence of paragraph (a)(4)(i) 
of this section and paragraph (c)(2)(i) of this section apply to 
taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a 
taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 
2021, a taxpayer may apply the rules provided in the first sentence of 
this paragraph (c)(3), provided that the taxpayer follows all the 
applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 446 for 
such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years.
* * * * *

0
Par. 13. Section 1.448-1 is amended by adding new first and second 
sentences to paragraphs (g)(1) and (h)(1) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.448-1  Limitation on the use of the cash receipts and 
disbursements method of accounting.

* * * * *
    (g) * * * (1) * * * The rules provided in paragraph (g) of this 
section

[[Page 269]]

apply to taxable years beginning before January 1, 2018. See Sec.  
1.448-2 for rules relating to taxable years beginning after December 
31, 2017. * * *
* * * * *
    (h) * * * (1) * * * The rules provided in paragraph (h) of this 
section apply to taxable years beginning before January 1, 2018. See 
Sec.  1.448-2 for rules relating to taxable years beginning after 
December 31, 2017. * * *
* * * * *


Sec.  1.448-2  [Redesignated as Sec.  1.448-3]

0
Par. 14. Section 1.448-2 is redesignated as Sec.  1.448-3.

0
Par. 15. A new Sec.  1.448-2 is added to read as follows:


Sec.  1.448-2   Limitation on the use of the cash receipts and 
disbursements method of accounting for taxable years beginning after 
December 31, 2017.

    (a) Limitation on method of accounting--(1) In general. The rules 
of this section relate to the limitation on the use of the cash 
receipts and disbursements method of accounting (cash method) by 
certain taxpayers applicable for taxable years beginning after December 
31, 2017. For rules applicable to taxable years beginning before 
January 1, 2018, see Sec. Sec.  1.448-1 and 1.448-1T.
    (2) Limitation rule. Except as otherwise provided in this section, 
the computation of taxable income using the cash method is prohibited 
in the case of a:
    (i) C corporation;
    (ii) Partnership with a C corporation as a partner, or a 
partnership that had a C corporation as a partner at any time during 
the partnership's taxable year beginning after December 31, 1986; or
    (iii) Tax shelter.
    (3) Treatment of combination methods--(i) In general. For purposes 
of this section, the use of a method of accounting that records some, 
but not all, items on the cash method is considered the use of the cash 
method. Thus, a C corporation that uses a combination of accounting 
methods including the use of the cash method is subject to this 
section.
    (ii) Example. The following example illustrates the operation of 
this paragraph (a)(3). In 2020, A is a C corporation with average 
annual gross receipts for the prior three taxable years of greater than 
$30 million, is not a tax shelter under section 448(a)(3) and does not 
qualify as a qualified personal service corporation, as defined in 
paragraph (e) of this section. For the last 20 years, A used an accrual 
method for items of income and expenses related to purchases and sales 
of inventory, and the cash method for items related to its provision of 
services. A is using a combination of accounting methods that include 
the cash method. Thus, A is subject to section 448. A is prohibited 
from using the cash method for any item for 2020 and is required to 
change to a permissible method.
    (b) Definitions. For purposes of this section--
    (1) C corporation--(i) In general. The term C corporation means any 
corporation that is not an S corporation (as defined in section 
1361(a)(1)). For example, a regulated investment company (as defined in 
section 851) or a real estate investment trust (as defined in section 
856) is a C corporation for purposes of this section. In addition, a 
trust subject to tax under section 511(b) is treated, for purposes of 
this section, as a C corporation, but only with respect to the portion 
of its activities that constitute an unrelated trade or business. 
Similarly, for purposes of this section, a corporation that is exempt 
from Federal income taxes under section 501(a) is treated as a C 
corporation only with respect to the portion of its activities that 
constitute an unrelated trade or business. Moreover, for purposes of 
determining whether a partnership has a C corporation as a partner, any 
partnership described in paragraph (a)(2)(ii) of this section is 
treated as a C corporation. Thus, if partnership ABC has a partner that 
is a partnership with a C corporation, then, for purposes of this 
section, partnership ABC is treated as a partnership with a C 
corporation partner.
    (ii) [Reserved]
    (2) Tax shelter--(i) In general. The term tax shelter means any--
    (A) Enterprise, other than a C corporation, if at any time, 
including taxable years beginning before January 1, 1987, interests in 
such enterprise have been offered for sale in any offering required to 
be registered with any Federal or state agency having the authority to 
regulate the offering of securities for sale;
    (B) Syndicate, within the meaning of paragraph (b)(2)(iii) of this 
section; or
    (C) Tax shelter, within the meaning of section 6662(d)(2)(C).
    (ii) Requirement of registration. For purposes of paragraph 
(b)(2)(i)(A) of this section, an offering is required to be registered 
with a Federal or state agency if, under the applicable Federal or 
state law, failure to register the offering would result in a violation 
of the applicable Federal or state law. This rule applies regardless of 
whether the offering is in fact registered. In addition, an offering is 
required to be registered with a Federal or state agency if, under the 
applicable Federal or state law, failure to file a notice of exemption 
from registration would result in a violation of the applicable Federal 
or state law, regardless of whether the notice is in fact filed. 
However, an S corporation is not treated as a tax shelter for purposes 
of section 448(d)(3) or this section merely by reason of being required 
to file a notice of exemption from registration with a state agency 
described in section 461(i)(3)(A), but only if all corporations 
offering securities for sale in the state must file such a notice in 
order to be exempt from such registration.
    (iii) Syndicate--(A) In general. For purposes of paragraph 
(b)(2)(i)(B) of this section, the term syndicate means a partnership or 
other entity (other than a C corporation) if more than 35 percent of 
the losses of such entity during the taxable year (for taxable years 
beginning after December 31, 1986) are allocated to limited partners or 
limited entrepreneurs. For purposes of this paragraph (b)(2)(iii), the 
term limited entrepreneur has the same meaning given such term in 
section 461(k)(4). In addition, in determining whether an interest in a 
partnership is held by a limited partner, or an interest in an entity 
or enterprise is held by a limited entrepreneur, section 461(k)(2) 
applies in the case of the trade or business of farming (as defined in 
paragraph (d)(2) of this section), and section 1256(e)(3)(C) applies in 
all other cases. Moreover, for purposes of paragraph (b)(2) of this 
section, the losses of a partnership, entity, or enterprise (entities) 
means the excess of the deductions allowable to the entities over the 
amount of income recognized by such entities under the entities' method 
of accounting used for Federal income tax purposes (determined without 
regard to this section). For this purpose, gains or losses from the 
sale of capital assets or assets described in section 1221(a)(2) are 
not taken into account.
    (B) Irrevocable annual election to test the allocation of losses 
from prior taxable year--(1) In general. For purposes of paragraph 
(b)(2)(iii)(A) of this section, to determine if more than 35 percent of 
the losses of a venture are allocated to limited partners or limited 
entrepreneurs, entities may elect to use the allocations made in the 
immediately preceding taxable year instead of using the current taxable 
year's allocation. An election under this paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) 
applies only to the taxable year for which the election is made. Except 
as otherwise provided in guidance published in the Internal Revenue 
Bulletin (see Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of this chapter), a taxpayer that 
makes an

[[Page 270]]

election under this paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) must apply this election 
for other provisions of the Code that specifically apply the definition 
of tax shelter in section 448(a)(3).
    (2) Time and manner of making election. A taxpayer makes this 
election for the taxable year by attaching a statement to its timely 
filed original Federal income tax return (including extensions) for 
such taxable year. The statement must state that the taxpayer is making 
the election under Sec.  1.448-2(b)(2)(iii)(B). In the case of an S 
corporation or partnership, the election is made by the S corporation 
or the partnership and not by the shareholders or partners. An election 
under this paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) may not be made by the taxpayer in 
any other manner. For example, the election cannot be made through a 
request under section 446(e) to change the taxpayer's method of 
accounting. A taxpayer may not revoke an election under this paragraph 
(b)(2)(iii)(B).
    (3) Administrative guidance. The IRS may publish procedural 
guidance in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (see Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of 
this chapter) that provides alternative procedures for complying with 
paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B)(2) of this section.
    (C) Examples. The following examples illustrate the rules of 
paragraph (b)(2)(iii) of this section. For purposes of the examples, 
the term ``losses'' has the meaning stated in paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(A) 
of this section.
    (1) Example 1. Taxpayer B is a calendar year limited partnership, 
with no active management from its limited partner. For 2019, B is 
profitable and has no losses to allocate to its limited partner. For 
2020, B is not profitable and allocates 60 percent of its losses to its 
general partner and 40 percent of its losses to its limited partner. 
For 2021, B is not profitable and allocates 50 percent of its losses to 
its general partner and 50 percent of its losses to its limited 
partner. For taxable year 2020, B makes an election under paragraph 
(b)(2)(iii)(B) of this section to use its prior year allocated amounts. 
Accordingly, for 2020, B is not a syndicate because B was profitable 
for 2019 and did not allocate any losses to its limited partner in 
2019. For 2021, B is a syndicate because B allocated 50 percent of its 
2021 losses to its limited partner under paragraph (b)(2)(ii)(3)(A) of 
this section. Even if B made an election under paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) 
of this section to use prior year allocated amounts, B is a syndicate 
for 2021 because B allocated 40 percent of its 2020 losses to its 
limited partner in 2020. Because B is a syndicate under paragraph 
(b)(2)(iii)(A) of this section for 2021, B is a tax shelter prohibited 
from using the cash method for taxable year 2021 under paragraph 
(b)(2)(i)(B) of this section.
    (2) Example (2). Same facts as Example (1) in paragraph 
(b)(2)(iii)(C)(1) of this section, except for 2021, B is profitable and 
has no losses to allocate to its limited partner. For 2020, B makes an 
election under paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) of this section to use its 
prior year allocated amounts. Accordingly, for 2020, B is not a 
syndicate because it did not any allocate any losses to its limited 
partner in 2019. For 2021, B chooses not to make the election under 
paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) of this section. For 2021, B is not a 
syndicate because it does not have any 2021 losses to allocate to a 
limited partner. For taxable years 2019, 2020 and 2021, B is not a 
syndicate under paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(A) of this section and is not 
prohibited from using the cash method for taxable years 2019, 2020 or 
2021 under paragraph (b)(2)(i)(B) of this section.
    (iv) Presumed tax avoidance. For purposes of (b)(2)(i)(C) of this 
section, marketed arrangements in which persons carrying on farming 
activities using the services of a common managerial or administrative 
service will be presumed to have the principal purpose of tax avoidance 
if such persons use borrowed funds to prepay a substantial portion of 
their farming expenses. Payments for farm supplies that will not be 
used or consumed until a taxable year subsequent to the taxable year of 
payment are an example of one type of such prepayment.
    (v) Taxable year tax shelter must change accounting method. A tax 
shelter must change from the cash method for the taxable year that it 
becomes a tax shelter, as determined under paragraph (b)(2) of this 
section.
    (vi) Determination of loss amount. For purposes of section 
448(d)(3), the amount of losses to be allocated under section 
1256(e)(3)(B) is calculated without regard to section 163(j).
    (c) Exception for entities with gross receipts not in excess of the 
amount provided in section 448(c)--(1) In general. Except in the case 
of a tax shelter, this section does not apply to any C corporation or 
partnership with a C corporation as a partner for any taxable year if 
such corporation or partnership (or any predecessor thereof) meets the 
gross receipts test of paragraph (c)(2) of this section.
    (2) Gross receipts test--(i) In general. A corporation meets the 
gross receipts test of this paragraph (c)(2) if the average annual 
gross receipts of such corporation for the 3 taxable years (or, if 
shorter, the taxable years during which such corporation was in 
existence, annualized as required) ending with such prior taxable year 
does not exceed the gross receipts test amount provided in paragraph 
(c)(2)(v) of this section (section 448(c) gross receipts test). In the 
case of a C corporation exempt from Federal income taxes under section 
501(a), or a trust subject to tax under section 511(b) that is treated 
as a C corporation under paragraph (b)(1) of this section, only gross 
receipts from the activities of such corporation or trust that 
constitute unrelated trades or businesses are taken into account in 
determining whether the gross receipts test is satisfied. A partnership 
with a C corporation as a partner meets the gross receipts test of 
paragraph (c)(2) of this section if the average annual gross receipts 
of such partnership for the 3 taxable years (or, if shorter, the 
taxable years during which such partnership was in existence annualized 
as required) ending with such prior year does not exceed the gross 
receipts test amount of paragraph (c)(2)(v) of this section. Except as 
provided in paragraph (c)(2)(ii) of this section, the gross receipts of 
the corporate partner are not taken into account in determining whether 
a partnership meets the gross receipts test of paragraph (c)(2) of this 
section.
    (ii) Aggregation of gross receipts. The aggregation rules in Sec.  
1.448-1T(f)(2)(ii) apply for purposes of aggregating gross receipts for 
purposes of this section.
    (iii) Treatment of short taxable year. The short taxable year rules 
in Sec.  1.448-1T(f)(2)(iii) apply for purposes of this section.
    (iv) Determination of gross receipts. The determination of gross 
receipts rules in Sec.  1.448-1T(f)(2)(iv) apply for purposes of this 
section.
    (v) Gross receipts test amount--(A) In general. For purposes of 
paragraph (c) of this section, the term gross receipts test amount 
means $25,000,000, adjusted annually for inflation in the manner 
provided in section 448(c)(4). The inflation adjusted gross receipts 
test amount is published annually in guidance published in the Internal 
Revenue Bulletin (see Sec.  601.601(d)(2)(ii) of this chapter).
    (B) Example. Taxpayer A, a C corporation, is a plumbing contractor 
that installs plumbing fixtures in customers' homes or businesses. A's 
gross receipts for the 2017-2019 taxable years are $20 million, $16 
million, and $30 million, respectively. A's average annual gross 
receipts for the three taxable-year period preceding the 2020 taxable 
year is $22 million (($20 million

[[Page 271]]

+ $16 million + $30 million)/3) = $22 million. A may use the cash 
method for its trade or business for the 2020 taxable year because its 
average annual gross receipts for the preceding three taxable years is 
not more than the gross receipts test amount of paragraph (c)(2)(vi) of 
this section, which is $26 million for 2020.
    (d) Exception for farming businesses--(1) In general. Except in the 
case of a tax shelter, this section does not apply to any farming 
business. A taxpayer engaged in a farming business and a separate non-
farming business is not prohibited by this section from using the cash 
method with respect to the farming business, even though the taxpayer 
may be prohibited by this section from using the cash method with 
respect to the non-farming business.
    (2) Farming business--(i) In general. For purposes of paragraph (d) 
of this section, the term farming business means--
    (A) The trade or business of farming as defined in section 
263A(e)(4) (including the operation of a nursery or sod farm, or the 
raising or harvesting of trees bearing fruit, nuts or other crops, or 
ornamental trees),
    (B) The raising, harvesting, or growing of trees described in 
section 263A(c)(5) (relating to trees raised, harvested, or grown by 
the taxpayer other than trees described in paragraph (d)(2)(i)(A) of 
this section),
    (C) The raising of timber, or
    (D) Processing activities which are normally incident to the 
growing, raising, or harvesting of agricultural products.
    (ii) Example. Assume a taxpayer is in the business of growing 
fruits and vegetables. When the fruits and vegetables are ready to be 
harvested, the taxpayer picks, washes, inspects, and packages the 
fruits and vegetables for sale. Such activities are normally incident 
to the raising of these crops by farmers. The taxpayer will be 
considered to be in the business of farming with respect to the growing 
of fruits and vegetables, and the processing activities incident to the 
harvest.
    (iii) Processing activities excluded from farming businesses--(A) 
In general. For purposes of this section, a farming business does not 
include the processing of commodities or products beyond those 
activities normally incident to the growing, raising, or harvesting of 
such products.
    (B) Examples. (1) Example 1. Assume that a C corporation taxpayer 
is in the business of growing and harvesting wheat and other grains. 
The taxpayer processes the harvested grains to produce breads, cereals, 
and similar food products which it sells to customers in the course of 
its business. Although the taxpayer is in the farming business with 
respect to the growing and harvesting of grain, the taxpayer is not in 
the farming business with respect to the processing of such grains to 
produce breads, cereals, and similar food products which the taxpayer 
sells to customers.
    (2) Example 2. Assume that a taxpayer is in the business of raising 
livestock. The taxpayer uses the livestock in a meat processing 
operation in which the livestock are slaughtered, processed, and 
packaged or canned for sale to customers. Although the taxpayer is in 
the farming business with respect to the raising of livestock, the 
taxpayer is not in the farming business with respect to the meat 
processing operation.
    (e) Exception for qualified personal service corporation. The rules 
in Sec.  1.448-1T(e) relating to the exception for qualified personal 
service corporations apply for taxable years beginning after December 
31, 2017.
    (f) Effect of section 448 on other provisions. Except as provided 
in paragraph (b)(2)(iii)(B) of this section, nothing in section 448 
shall have any effect on the application of any other provision of law 
that would otherwise limit the use of the cash method, and no inference 
shall be drawn from section 448 with respect to the application of any 
such provision. For example, nothing in section 448 affects the 
requirement of section 447 that certain corporations must use an 
accrual method of accounting in computing taxable income from farming, 
or the requirement of Sec.  1.446-1(c)(2) that, in general, an accrual 
method be used with regard to purchases and sales of inventory. 
Similarly, nothing in section 448 affects the authority of the 
Commissioner under section 446(b) to require the use of an accounting 
method that clearly reflects income, or the requirement under section 
446(e) that a taxpayer secure the consent of the Commissioner before 
changing its method of accounting. For example, a taxpayer using the 
cash method may be required to change to an accrual method of 
accounting under section 446(b) because such method clearly reflects 
the taxpayer's income, even though the taxpayer is not prohibited by 
section 448 from using the cash method. Similarly, a taxpayer using an 
accrual method of accounting that is not prohibited by section 448 from 
using the cash method may not change to the cash method unless the 
taxpayer secures the consent of the Commissioner under section 446(e).
    (g) Treatment of accounting method change and rules for section 
481(a) adjustment--(1) In general. Any taxpayer to whom section 448 
applies must change its method of accounting in accordance with the 
provisions of this paragraph (g). In the case of any taxpayer required 
by this section to change its method of accounting, the change shall be 
treated as a change initiated by the taxpayer to compute the adjustment 
required under section 481. A taxpayer must change to an overall 
accrual method of accounting for the first taxable year the taxpayer is 
subject to this section or a subsequent taxable year in which the 
taxpayer is newly subject to this section after previously making a 
change in method of accounting that complies with section 448 
(mandatory section 448 year). A taxpayer may have more than one 
mandatory section 448 year. For example, a taxpayer may exceed the 
gross receipts test of section 448(c) in non-consecutive taxable years. 
If the taxpayer complies with the provisions of paragraph (g)(3) of 
this section for its mandatory section 448 year, the change shall be 
treated as made with the consent of the Commissioner. The change shall 
be implemented pursuant to the applicable administrative procedures to 
obtain the automatic consent of the Commissioner to change a method of 
accounting under section 446(e) as published in the Internal Revenue 
Bulletin (see Revenue Procedure 2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) 
(see also Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of this chapter)). This paragraph (g) 
applies only to a taxpayer who changes from the cash method as required 
by this section. This paragraph (g) does not apply to a change in 
method of accounting required by any Code section (or applicable 
regulation) other than this section.
    (2) Section 481(a) adjustment. The amount of the net section 481(a) 
adjustment and the adjustment period necessary to implement a change in 
method of accounting required under this section are determined under 
Sec.  1.446-1(e) and the applicable administrative procedures to obtain 
the Commissioner's consent to change a method of accounting as 
published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (see Revenue Procedure 2015-
13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see also Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of 
this chapter).
    (h) Applicability dates. The rules of this section apply for 
taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a 
taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 
2021, a taxpayer may apply the rules provided in this section

[[Page 272]]

provided that the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules contained 
in the regulations under section 448 for such taxable year and all 
subsequent taxable years.

0
Par. 16. Newly-redesignated Sec.  1.448-3 is amended by revising 
paragraphs (a)(2) and (h) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.448-3  Nonaccrual of certain amounts by service providers.

    (a) * * *
    (2) The taxpayer meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) 
and Sec.  1.448-1T(f)(2) (in the case of taxable years beginning before 
January 1, 2018), or Sec.  1.448-2(c) (in the case of taxable years 
beginning after December 31, 2017) for all prior taxable years.
* * * * *
    (h) Applicability dates. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (h)(2) 
of this section, this section is applicable for taxable years ending on 
or after August 31, 2006.
    (2) The rules of paragraph (a)(2) of this section apply for taxable 
years beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a taxable 
year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 2021, a 
taxpayer may apply the paragraph described in the first sentence of 
this paragraph (h)(2), provided that the taxpayer follows all the 
applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 448 for 
such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years.

0
Par. 17. Section 1.460-0 is amended by:
0
1. Adding an entry for Sec.  1.460-1(h)(3).
0
2. Revising the entries for Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3), Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3)(i) 
and (ii), and adding entries for Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3)(ii)(A), (B), (C) 
and (D).
0
3. Removing the entry for Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3)(iii).
0
4. Adding entries for Sec.  1.460-3(d), Sec.  1.460-4(i), and Sec.  
1.460-6(k).
    The additions and revisions read as follows:


Sec.  1.460-0  Outline of regulations under section 460.

* * * * *
Sec.  1.460-1 Long-term contracts.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *
    (3) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97).

* * * * *
Sec.  1.460-3 Long-term construction contracts.

* * * * *
    (b) * * *
    (3) Gross receipts test of section 448(c)
    (i) In general
    (ii) Application of gross receipts test
    (A) In general
    (B) Gross receipts of individuals, etc.
    (C) Partners and S corporation shareholders
    (D) Examples
    (1) Example 1.
    (2) Example 2.
    (iii) Method of accounting.
* * * * *
    (d) Applicability dates.

Sec.  1.460-4 Methods of Accounting for long-term contracts.
* * * * *

    (i) Applicability date.
* * * * *

Sec.  1.460-6 Look-back method.

* * * * *
    (k) Applicability date.

0
Par. 18. Section 1.460-1 is amended by adding three sentences to the 
end of paragraph (f)(3) and adding paragraph (h)(3) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.460-1  Long-term contracts.

* * * * *
    (f) * * *
    (3) * * * A taxpayer may adopt any permissible method of accounting 
for each classification of contract. Such adoption is not a change in 
method of accounting under section 446 and the accompanying 
regulations. For example, a taxpayer that has had only contracts 
classified as nonexempt long-term contracts and has used the PCM for 
these contracts may adopt an exempt contract method in the taxable year 
it first enters into an exempt long-term contract.
* * * * *
    (h) * * *
    (3) Changes made by Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (Pub. L. 115-97). 
Paragraph (f)(3) of this section, and Sec.  1.460-5(d)(1) and (d)(3), 
apply for contracts entered into in taxable years beginning on or after 
January 5, 2021. However, for contracts entered into after December 31, 
2017, in a taxable year ending after December 31, 2017, and before 
January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may apply paragraph (f)(3) of this section, 
and Sec.  1.460-5(d)(1) and (d)(3), provided that the taxpayer also 
applies the applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 
460 for such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years.
* * * * *

0
Par. 19. Section 1.460-3 is amended by revising paragraphs (b)(1)(ii) 
and (b)(3), and adding paragraph (d) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.460-3  Long-term construction contracts.

* * * * *
    (b) * * *
    (1) * * *
    (ii) Other construction contract, entered into after December 31, 
2017, in a taxable year ending after December 31, 2017, by a taxpayer, 
other than a tax shelter prohibited from using the cash receipts and 
disbursements method of accounting (cash method) under section 
448(a)(3), who estimates at the time such contract is entered into that 
such contract will be completed within the 2-year period beginning on 
the contract commencement date, and who meets the gross receipts test 
described in paragraph (b)(3) of this section for the taxable year in 
which such contract is entered into.
* * * * *
    (3) Gross receipts test--(i) In general. A taxpayer, other than a 
tax shelter prohibited from using the cash method under section 
448(a)(3), meets the gross receipts test of this paragraph (b)(3) if it 
meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and Sec.  1.448-
2(c)(2). This gross receipts test applies even if the taxpayer is not 
otherwise subject to section 448(a).
    (ii) Application of gross receipts test--(A) In general. In the 
case of any taxpayer that is not a corporation or a partnership, and 
except as provided in paragraphs (b)(3)(ii)(B) and (C) of this section, 
the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and the accompanying 
regulations are applied in the same manner as if each trade or business 
of such taxpayer were a corporation or partnership.
    (B) Gross receipts of individuals, etc. Except when the aggregation 
rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, the gross receipts of a taxpayer 
other than a corporation or partnership are the amount derived from all 
trades or businesses of such taxpayer. Amounts not related to a trade 
or business are excluded from the gross receipts of the taxpayer. For 
example, an individual taxpayer's gross receipts do not include 
inherently personal amounts, such as personal injury awards or 
settlements with respect to an injury of the individual taxpayer, 
disability benefits, Social Security benefits received by the taxpayer 
during the taxable year, and wages received as an employee that are 
reported on Form W-2.
    (C) Partners and S corporation shareholders. Except when the 
aggregation rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, each partner in a 
partnership includes a share of partnership gross receipts in 
proportion to such partner's distributive share (as determined under 
section 704) of items of gross income that were taken into account by 
the partnership under section 703. Similarly, a shareholder includes 
the pro rata share of S corporation gross

[[Page 273]]

receipts taken into account by the S corporation under section 1363(b).
    (D) Example. The operation of this paragraph (b)(3) is illustrated 
by the following examples:
    (1) Example 1. Taxpayer A is an individual who operates two 
separate and distinct trades or business that are reported on Schedule 
C, Profit or Loss from Business, of A's Federal income tax return. For 
2020, one trade or business has annual average gross receipts of $5 
million, and the other trade or business has average annual gross 
receipts of $35 million. Under paragraph (b)(3)(ii)(B) of this section, 
for 2020, neither of A's trades or businesses meets the gross receipts 
test of paragraph (b)(3) of this section ($5 million + $35 million = 
$40 million, which is greater than the inflation-adjusted gross 
receipts test amount for 2020, which is $26 million).
    (2) Example 2. Taxpayer B is an individual who operates three 
separate and distinct trades or business that are reported on Schedule 
C of B's Federal income tax return. For 2020, Business X is a retail 
store with average annual gross receipts of $15 million, Business Y is 
a dance studio with average annual gross receipts of $6 million, and 
Business Z is a car repair shop with average annual gross receipts of 
$12 million. Under paragraph (b)(3)(ii)(B) of this section, B's gross 
receipts are the combined amount derived from all three of B's trades 
or businesses. Therefore, for 2020, X, Y and Z do not meet the gross 
receipts test of paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this section ($15 million + $6 
million + $12 million = $33 million, which is greater than the 
inflation-adjusted gross receipts test amount for 2020, which is $26 
million).
    (iii) Method of accounting. A change in the method of accounting 
used for exempt construction contracts described in paragraph 
(b)(1)(ii) of this section is a change in method of accounting under 
section 446 and the accompanying regulations. For rules distinguishing 
a change in method from adoption of a method, see Sec.  1.460-1(f)(3). 
A taxpayer changing its method of accounting must obtain the consent of 
the Commissioner in accordance with Sec.  1.446-1(e)(3). For rules 
relating to the clear reflection of income and the pattern of 
consistent treatment of an item, see section 446 and Sec.  1.446-1. A 
change in method of accounting shall be implemented pursuant to the 
applicable administrative procedures to obtain the consent of the 
Commissioner to change a method of accounting under section 446(e) as 
published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (IRB) (see Revenue Procedure 
2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of 
this chapter)). A taxpayer that uses the percentage of completion 
method for exempt contracts described in paragraph (b)(1)(ii) of this 
section that wants to change to another exempt contract method is to 
use the applicable administrative procedures to obtain the automatic 
consent of the Commissioner to change such method under section 446(e) 
as published in the IRB. A taxpayer-initiated change in method of 
accounting will be permitted only on a cut-off basis, and thus, a 
section 481(a) adjustment will not be permitted or required. See Sec.  
1.460-4(g).
* * * * *
    (d) Applicability Dates. Paragraphs (b)(1)(ii) and (b)(3) of this 
section apply, for contracts entered into in taxable years beginning on 
or after January 5, 2021. However, for contracts entered into after 
December 31, 2017, in a taxable year ending after December 31, 2017, 
and before January 5, 2021, a taxpayer may apply the paragraphs 
described in the first sentence of this paragraph (d), provided that 
the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules contained in the 
regulations under section 460 for such taxable year and all subsequent 
taxable years.

0
Par. 20. Section 1.460-4 is amended by revising the first sentence of 
paragraph (f)(1) and adding paragraph (i) to read as follows:


Sec.  1.460-4  Methods of Accounting for long-term contracts.

* * * * *
    (f) * * * (1) * * * Under section 56(a)(3), a taxpayer subject to 
the AMT must use the PCM to determine its AMTI from any long-term 
contract entered into on or after March 1, 1986, that is not a home 
construction contract, as defined in Sec.  1.460-3(b)(2). * * *
* * * * *
    (i) Applicability date. Paragraph (f)(1) of this section applies to 
taxable years beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a 
taxable year beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 
2021, a taxpayer may apply the paragraph described in the first 
sentence of this paragraph (i), provided that the taxpayer follows all 
the applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 460 for 
such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years.
* * * * *

0
Par. 21. Section 1.460-5 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (d)(1), by removing the language ``(concerning 
contracts of homebuilders that do not satisfy the $10,000,000 gross 
receipts test described in Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3) or will not be completed 
within two years of the contract commencement date)''.
0
2. By revising paragraph (d)(3).
    The revision reads as follows:


Sec.  1.460-5  Cost allocation rules.

* * * * *
    (d) * * *
    (3) Large homebuilders. A taxpayer must capitalize the costs of 
home construction contracts under section 263A, unless the taxpayer 
estimates, when entering into the contract, that it will be completed 
within two years of the contract commencement date, and the taxpayer 
satisfies the gross receipts test of section 448(c) described in Sec.  
1.460-3(b)(3) for the taxable year in which the contract is entered 
into.
* * * * *

0
Par. 22. Section 1.460-6 is amended:
0
1. In paragraph (b)(2) introductory text, by removing the language 
``section 460(e)(4)'' and adding in its place the language ``section 
460(e)(3)''.
0
2. By revising the first and last sentences of paragraph (b)(2)(ii).
0
3. By designating the undesignated text after paragraph (b)(3)(ii) as 
paragraph (b)(3)(iii).
0
4. In newly designated paragraph (b)(3)(iii), by adding a sentence to 
the end of the paragraph.
0
5. In paragraph (c)(1)(i), by revising the fifth sentence.
0
6. In paragraph (c)(2)(i), by revising the third sentence.
0
7. In paragraph (c)(2)(iv), by revising the first sentence.
0
8. In paragraph (c)(3)(ii), by revising the first sentence.
0
9. In paragraph (c)(3)(vi), by revising the first sentence.
0
10. In paragraph (d)(2)(i), by removing the language ``whether or not 
the taxpayer would have been subject to the alternative minimum tax'' 
and adding in its place the language ``for taxpayers subject to the 
alternative minimum tax without regard to whether tentative minimum tax 
exceeds regular tax for the redetermination year''.
0
11. By revising paragraph (d)(4)(i)(A).
0
12. By designating paragraph (h)(8)(ii) Example 7 as paragraph 
(h)(8)(iii).
0
13. By revising newly designated paragraph (h)(8)(iii).
0
14. By adding paragraph (k).
    The revisions and additions read as follows:


Sec.  1.460-6   Look-back method.

* * * * *
    (b) * * *
    (2) * * *
    (ii) is not a home construction contract but is estimated to be 
completed within a 2-year period by a taxpayer, other than a tax 
shelter

[[Page 274]]

prohibited from using the cash receipts and disbursements method of 
accounting under section 448(a)(3), who meets the gross receipts test 
of section 448(c) and Sec.  1.460-3(b)(3) for the taxable year in which 
such contract is entered into. * * * The look-back method, however, 
applies to the alternative minimum taxable income from a contract of 
this type, for those taxpayers subject to the AMT in taxable years 
prior to the filing taxable year in which the look-back method is 
required, unless the contract is exempt from required use of the 
percentage of completion method under section 56(a)(3).
    (3) * * *
    (iii) * * * For contracts entered into after December 31, 2017, in 
a taxable year ending after December 31, 2017, a taxpayer's gross 
receipts are determined in the manner required by regulations under 
section 448(c).
* * * * *
    (c) * * *
    (1) * * *
    (i) * * * Based on this reapplication, the taxpayer determines the 
amount of taxable income (and, when applicable, alternative minimum 
taxable income and modified taxable income under section 59A(c)) that 
would have been reported for each year prior to the filing year that is 
affected by contracts completed or adjusted in the filing year if the 
actual, rather than estimated, total contract price and costs had been 
used in applying the percentage of completion method to these 
contracts, and to any other contracts completed or adjusted in a year 
preceding the filing year. * * *
* * * * *
    (2) * * * (i) * * * The taxpayer then must determine the amount of 
taxable income (and, when applicable, alternative minimum taxable 
income and modified taxable income under section 59A(c)) that would 
have been reported for each affected tax year preceding the filing year 
if the percentage of completion method had been applied on the basis of 
actual contract price and contract costs in reporting income from all 
contracts completed or adjusted in the filing year and in any preceding 
year. * * *
* * * * *
    (iv) * * * In general, because income under the percentage of 
completion method is generally reported as costs are incurred, the 
taxable income and, when applicable, alternative minimum taxable income 
and modified taxable income under section 59A(c), are recomputed only 
for each year in which allocable contract costs were incurred. * * *
* * * * *
    (3) * * *
    (ii) * * * Under the method described in this paragraph (c)(3) 
(actual method), a taxpayer first must determine what its regular and, 
when applicable, its alternative minimum tax and base erosion minimum 
tax liability would have been for each redetermination year if the 
amounts of contract income allocated in Step One for all contracts 
completed or adjusted in the filing year and in any prior year were 
substituted for the amounts of contract income reported under the 
percentage of completion method on the taxpayer's original return (or 
as subsequently adjusted on examination, or by amended return). * * *
* * * * *
    (vi) * * * For purposes of Step Two, the income tax liability must 
be redetermined by taking into account all applicable additions to tax, 
credits, and net operating loss carrybacks and carryovers. Thus, the 
taxes, if any, imposed under sections 55 and 59A (relating to 
alternative and base erosion minimum tax, respectively) must be taken 
into account. * * *
* * * * *
    (d) * * *
    (4) * * * (i) * * *(A) General rule. The simplified marginal impact 
method is required to be used with respect to income reported from 
domestic contracts by a pass-through entity that is either a 
partnership, an S corporation, or a trust, and that is not closely 
held. With respect to contracts described in the preceding sentence, 
the simplified marginal impact method is applied by the pass-through 
entity at the entity level. The pass-through entity determines the 
amount of any hypothetical underpayment or overpayment for a 
redetermination year using the highest rate of tax in effect for 
corporations under section 11. However, for redetermination years 
beginning before January 1, 2018, the pass-through entity uses the 
highest rates of tax in effect for corporations under section 11 and 
section 55(b)(1). Further, the pass-through entity uses the highest 
rates of tax imposed on individuals under section 1 and section 
55(b)(1) if, at all times during the redetermination year involved 
(that is, the year in which the hypothetical increase or decrease in 
income arises), more than 50 percent of the interests in the entity 
were held by individuals directly or through 1 or more pass-through 
entities.
* * * * *
    (h) * * *
    (8) * * *
    (iii) Example 7. X, a calendar year C corporation, is engaged in 
the construction of real property under contracts that are completed 
within a 24-month period. Its average annual gross receipts for the 
prior 3-taxable-year period does not exceed $25,000,000. As permitted 
by section 460(e)(1)(B), X uses the completed contract method (CCM) for 
regular tax purposes. However, X is engaged in the construction of 
commercial real property and, for years beginning before January 1, 
2018, is required to use the percentage of completion method (PCM) for 
alternative minimum tax (AMT) purposes. Assume that for 2017, 2018, and 
2019, X has only one long-term contract, which is entered into in 2017 
and completed in 2019 and that in 2017 X's average annual gross 
receipts for the prior 3-taxable-years do not exceed $10,000,000. 
Assume further that X estimates gross income from the contract to be 
$2,000, total contract costs to be $1,000, and that the contract is 25 
percent complete in 2017 and 70 percent complete in 2018, and 5 percent 
complete in 2019. In 2019, the year of completion, gross income from 
the contract is actually $3,000, instead of $2,000, and costs are 
actually $1,000. Because X was required to use the PCM for 2017 for AMT 
purposes, X must apply the look-back method to its AMT reporting for 
that year. X has elected to use the simplified marginal impact method. 
For 2017, X's income using estimated contract price and costs is as 
follows:

                    Table 1 to Paragraph (h)(8)(iii)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 Estimates                              2017
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gross Income..............................  $500 = ($2,000 x 25%)
Deductions................................  $(250) = ($1,000 x 25%)
Contract Income--PCM......................  $250
------------------------------------------------------------------------

    (A) When X files its federal income tax return for 2019, the 
contract completion year, X applies the look-back method. For 2017, X's 
income using actual contract price and costs is as follows:

                   Table 2 to Paragraph (h)(8)(iii)(A)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                  Actual                                2017
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gross Income..............................  $750 = ($3,000 x 25%)
Deductions................................   $(250) = ($1,000 x 25%)
Contract Income--PCM......................  $500
------------------------------------------------------------------------


[[Page 275]]

    (B) Accordingly, the reallocation of contract income under the 
look-back method results in an increase of income for AMT purposes for 
2017 of $250 ($500-$250). Under the simplified marginal impact method, 
X applies the highest rate of tax under section 55(b)(1) to this 
increase, which produces a hypothetical underpayment for 2017 of $50 
(.20 x $250). Interest is charged to X on this $50 underpayment from 
the due date of X's 2017 return until the due date of X's 2019 return. 
X, a C corporation, is not subject to the AMT in 2018. X does not 
compute alternative minimum taxable income or use the PCM in that year. 
Accordingly, look-back does not apply to 2018.
* * * * *
    (k) Applicability date. Paragraphs (b)(2), (b)(2)(ii), (b)(3)(iii), 
(c)(1)(i), (c)(2)(i), (c)(2)(iv), (c)(3)(ii), (c)(3)(vi), (d)(2)(i), 
(d)(4)(i)(A), and (h)(8)(iii) of this section apply to taxable years 
beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a taxable year 
beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 2021, a 
taxpayer may apply the paragraphs described in the first sentence of 
this paragraph (k), provided that the taxpayer follows all the 
applicable rules contained in the regulations under section 460 for 
such taxable year and all subsequent taxable years. Further, a taxpayer 
may apply those portions of paragraphs (b)(2)(ii) and (b)(3)(iii) of 
this section that relate to section 460(e)(1)(B) for contracts entered 
into after December 31, 2017, in a taxable year ending after December 
31, 2017, provided that the taxpayer follows all the applicable rules 
contained in the regulations under section 460 for such taxable year 
and all subsequent taxable years.

0
Par. 23. Sec.  1.471-1 is amended by:
0
1. Designating the undesignated paragraph as paragraph (a).
0
2. Adding a heading to newly designated paragraph (a) and revising the 
first sentence.
0
3. Adding paragraphs (b) and (c).
    The revision and addition read as follows:


Sec.  1.471-1  Need for inventories.

    (a) In general. Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this 
section, in order to reflect taxable income correctly, inventories at 
the beginning and end of each taxable year are necessary in every case 
in which the production, purchase, or sale of merchandise is an income-
producing factor. * * *
    (b) Exemption for certain small business taxpayers--(1) In general. 
Paragraph (a) of this section shall not apply to a taxpayer, other than 
a tax shelter prohibited from using the cash receipts and disbursements 
method of accounting (cash method) under section 448(a)(3), in any 
taxable year if the taxpayer meets the gross receipts test described in 
paragraph (b)(2) of this section, and uses as a method of accounting 
for its inventory a method that is described in paragraph (b)(3) of 
this section.
    (2) Gross receipts test--(i) In general. A taxpayer, other than a 
tax shelter prohibited from using the cash method under section 
448(a)(3), meets the gross receipts test of this paragraph (b)(2) if it 
meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and Sec.  1.448-2(c). 
This gross receipts test applies even if the taxpayer is not otherwise 
subject to section 448(a).
    (ii) Application of the gross receipts test--(A) In general. In the 
case of any taxpayer that is not a corporation or partnership, and 
except as otherwise provided in paragraphs (b)(2)(ii)(B) and (C) of 
this section, the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and the 
accompanying regulations are applied in the same manner as each trade 
or business of the taxpayer were a corporation or partnership.
    (B) Gross receipts of individuals, etc. Except when the aggregation 
rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, the gross receipts of a taxpayer 
other than a corporation or partnership are the amount derived from all 
trades or businesses of such taxpayer. Amounts not related to a trade 
or businesses are excluded from the gross receipts of the taxpayer. For 
example, an individual taxpayer's gross receipts do not include 
inherently personal amounts, such as: personal injury awards or 
settlements with respect to an injury of the individual taxpayer, 
disability benefits, Social Security benefits received by the taxpayer 
during the taxable year, and wages received as an employee that are 
reported on Form W-2.
    (C) Partners and S corporation shareholders--(1) In general. Except 
when the aggregation rules of section 448(c)(2) apply, each partner in 
a partnership includes a share of the partnership's gross receipts in 
proportion to such partner's distributive share (as determined under 
section 704) of items of gross income that were taken into account by 
the partnership under section 703. Similarly, a shareholder includes 
the pro rata share of S corporation gross receipts taken into account 
by the S corporation under section 1363(b).
    (2) [Reserved]
    (D) Examples. The operation of this paragraph (b)(2) is illustrated 
by the following examples:
    (1) Example 1. Taxpayer A, a calendar year S corporation, is a 
reseller and maintains inventories. In 2017, 2018, and 2019, A's gross 
receipts were $10 million, $11 million, and $13 million respectively. A 
is not prohibited from using the cash method under section 448(a)(3). 
For 2020, A meets the gross receipts test of paragraph (b)(2) of this 
section.
    (2) Example 2. Taxpayer B operates two separate and distinct trades 
or businesses that are reported on Schedule C, Profit or Loss from 
Business, of B's Federal income tax return. For 2020, one trade or 
business has annual average gross receipts of $5 million, and the other 
trade or business has average annual gross receipts of $35 million. 
Under paragraph (b)(2)(ii)(B) of this section, for 2020, neither of B's 
trades or businesses meets the gross receipts test of paragraph (b)(2) 
of this section ($5 million + $35 million = $40 million, which is 
greater than the inflation-adjusted gross receipts test amount for 
2020, which is $26 million).
    (3) Example 3. Taxpayer C is an individual who operates three 
separate and distinct trades or business that are reported on Schedule 
C of C's Federal income tax return. For 2020, Business X is a retail 
store with average annual gross receipts of $15 million, Business Y is 
a dance studio with average annual gross receipts of $6 million, and 
Business Z is a car repair shop with average annual gross receipts of 
$12 million. Under paragraph (b)(2)(ii)(B) of this section, C's gross 
receipts are the combined amount derived from all three of C's trades 
or businesses. Therefore, for 2020, X, Y and Z do not meet the gross 
receipts test of paragraph (b)(2)(i) of this section ($15 million + $6 
million + $12 million = $33 million, which is greater than the 
inflation-adjusted gross receipts test amount for 2020, which is $26 
million).
    (3) Methods of accounting under the small business taxpayer 
exemption. A taxpayer eligible to use, and that chooses to use, the 
exemption described in paragraph (b) of this section may account for 
its inventory by either:
    (i) Using a method that treats its inventory as non-incidental 
materials and supplies (section 471(c) NIMS inventory method), as 
described in paragraph (b)(4) of this section; or
    (ii) Using the method for each item that is reflected in the 
taxpayer's applicable financial statement (AFS) (AFS section 471(c) 
inventory method); or, if the taxpayer does not have an AFS for the 
taxable year, the books and records of the taxpayer prepared in 
accordance with the taxpayer's accounting procedures, as defined in

[[Page 276]]

paragraph (b)(6)(ii) of this section (non-AFS section 471(c) inventory 
method).
    (4) Inventory treated as non-incidental materials and supplies--(i) 
In general. The costs of inventory treated as non-incidental materials 
and supplies are recovered through cost of goods sold only in the 
taxable year in which the inventory is used or consumed in the 
taxpayer's business, or in the taxable year in which the taxpayer pays 
for or incurs the cost of the inventory, whichever is later. Inventory 
treated as non-incidental materials and supplies is used or consumed in 
the taxpayer's business in the taxable year in which the taxpayer 
provides the inventory to its customer. The costs of inventory are 
treated as non-incidental materials and supplies under this paragraph 
(b)(4) are not eligible for the de minimis safe harbor election under 
Sec.  1.263(a)-1(f)(2).
    (ii) Identification and valuation of inventory treated as non-
incidental materials and supplies. A taxpayer may determine the amount 
of the costs of its inventory treated as non-incidental materials and 
supplies that are recoverable through costs of goods sold by using 
either a specific identification method, a first-in, first-out (FIFO) 
method, or an average cost method, provided that method is used 
consistently. See Sec.  1.471-2(d). A taxpayer that uses the section 
471(c) NIMS inventory method may not use any other method described in 
the regulations under section 471, or the last-in, first-out (LIFO) 
method described in section 472 and the accompanying regulations, to 
either identify inventory treated as non-incidental materials and 
supplies, or to value that inventory treated as non-incidental 
materials and supplies. The inventory costs includible in the section 
471(c) NIMS inventory method are the direct material costs of the 
property produced or the costs of property acquired for resale. 
However, an inventory cost does not include a cost for which a 
deduction would be disallowed, or that is not otherwise recoverable but 
for paragraph (b)(4) of this section, in whole or in part, under a 
provision of the Internal Revenue Code.
    (iii) Allocation methods. A taxpayer treating its inventory as non-
incidental materials and supplies under this paragraph (b)(4) may 
allocate the costs of such inventory by using specific identification 
or any other reasonable method.
    (iv) Example. Taxpayer D is a baker that reports its baking trade 
or business on Schedule C, Profit or Loss From Business, of the Form 
1040, Individual Tax Return, and D's baking business has average annual 
gross receipts for the 3-taxable years prior to 2019 of less than 
$100,000. D meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and is not 
prohibited from using the cash method under section 448(a)(3) in 2019. 
Therefore, D qualifies as a small business taxpayer under paragraph 
(b)(2) of this section. D uses the overall cash method, and the section 
471(c) NIMS inventory method. D purchases $50 of peanut butter in 
November 2019. In December 2019, D uses all of the peanut butter to 
bake cookies available for immediate sale. D sells those peanut butter 
cookies to customers in January 2020. The peanut butter cookies are 
used or consumed under paragraph (b)(4)(i) of this section in January 
2020 when the cookies are sold to customers, and D may recover the cost 
of the peanut butter in 2020.
    (5) AFS section 471(c) inventory method--(i) In general. A taxpayer 
that meets the gross receipts test described in paragraph (b)(2) of 
this section and that has an AFS for such taxable year may use the AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method described in this paragraph to account 
for its inventory costs for the taxable year. For purposes of the AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method, an inventory cost is a cost of 
production or resale that a taxpayer capitalizes to inventory property 
produced or property acquired for resale in its AFS. For purposes of 
the AFS section 471(c) inventory method, costs that are generally 
required to be capitalized to inventory under section 471(a) but that 
the taxpayer does not capitalize to inventory on its AFS are not 
required to be capitalized to inventory. However, an inventory cost 
does not include a cost that is neither deductible nor otherwise 
recoverable but for paragraph (b)(5) of this section, in whole or in 
part, under a provision of the Internal Revenue Code (for example, 
section 162(c), (e), (f), (g), or 274). In lieu of the inventory method 
described in section 471(a), a taxpayer using the AFS section 471(c) 
inventory method recovers its inventory costs in accordance with the 
inventory method used in its AFS.
    (ii) Definition of Applicable Financial Statement (AFS). The term 
applicable financial statement (AFS) is defined in section 451(b)(3) 
and the accompanying regulations. See Sec.  1.451-3(a)(5). The rules 
relating to additional AFS issues provided in Sec.  1.451-3(h) apply to 
the AFS section 471(c) inventory method. In the case of a taxpayer with 
a financial accounting year that differs from the taxpayer's taxable 
year, the taxpayer must consistently use the same method of accounting 
described in Sec.  1.451-3(h)(4)(i)(A) through (C) that is used for 
section 451(b) purposes to also determine its inventory for the taxable 
year under this paragraph (b)(5)(ii). A taxpayer has an AFS for the 
taxable year if all of the taxpayer's taxable year is covered by an 
AFS.
    (iii) Timing of inventory costs. Notwithstanding the timing rules 
used in the taxpayer's AFS, the amount of any inventoriable cost may 
not be capitalized or otherwise taken into account for Federal income 
tax purposes any earlier than the taxable year during which the amount 
is paid or incurred under the taxpayer's overall method of accounting, 
as described in Sec.  1.446-1(c)(1). For example, in the case of an 
accrual method taxpayer, inventoriable costs must satisfy the all 
events test, including economic performance, of section 461. See Sec.  
1.446-1(c)(1)(ii) and section 461 and the accompanying regulations.
    (iv) Example. H is a calendar year C corporation that is engaged in 
the trade or business of selling office supplies and providing copier 
repair services. H meets the gross receipts test of section 448(c) and 
is not prohibited from using the cash method under section 448(a)(3) 
for 2019 or 2020. For Federal income tax purposes, H chooses to account 
for purchases and sales of inventory using an accrual method of 
accounting and for all other items using the cash method. For AFS 
purposes, H uses an overall accrual method of accounting. H uses the 
AFS section 471(c) inventory method of accounting. In H's 2019 AFS, H 
incurred $2 million in purchases of office supplies held for resale and 
recovered the $2 million as cost of goods sold. On January 5, 2020, H 
makes payment on $1.5 million of these office supplies. For purposes of 
the AFS section 471(c) inventory method of accounting, H can recover 
the $2 million of office supplies in 2019 because the amount has been 
included in cost of goods sold in its AFS inventory method and section 
461 has been satisfied.
    (6) Non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method--(i) In general. A 
taxpayer that meets the gross receipts test described in paragraph 
(b)(2) of this section for a taxable year and that does not have an 
AFS, as defined in paragraph (b)(5)(ii) of this section, for such 
taxable year may use the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method to 
account for its inventories for the taxable year in accordance with 
this paragraph (b)(6). The non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method is 
the method of accounting used for inventory in the taxpayer's books and 
records that properly reflect its business activities for non-tax 
purposes and are prepared in

[[Page 277]]

accordance with the taxpayer's accounting procedures. For purposes of 
the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method, an inventory cost is a 
cost of production or resale that the taxpayer capitalizes to inventory 
property produced or property acquired for resale in its books and 
records, except as provided in paragraph (b)(6)(ii) of this section. 
Costs that are generally required to be capitalized to inventory under 
section 471(a), but that the taxpayer does not capitalize in its books 
and records are not required to be capitalized to inventory. However, 
an inventory cost does not include a cost that is neither deductible 
nor otherwise recoverable but for paragraph (b)(5) of this section, in 
whole or in part, under a provision of the Internal Revenue Code (for 
example, section 162(c), (e), (f), (g), or 274). In lieu of the 
inventory method described in section 471(a), a taxpayer using the non-
AFS section 471(c) inventory method recovers its applicable costs 
through its book inventory method of accounting. A taxpayer that has an 
AFS for such taxable year may not use the non-AFS section 471(c) 
inventory method.
    (ii) Timing and amounts of costs. Notwithstanding the timing of 
costs reflected in the taxpayer's books and records, a taxpayer may not 
recover any costs that have not been paid or incurred under the 
taxpayer's overall method of accounting, as described in Sec.  1.446-
1(c)(1). For example, in the case of an accrual method taxpayer or a 
taxpayer using an accrual method for purchases and sales, inventory 
costs must satisfy the all events test, including economic performance, 
under section 461(h). See Sec.  1.446-1(c)(1)(ii), and section 461 and 
the accompanying regulations.
    (iii) Examples. The following examples illustrate the rules of 
paragraph (b)(6) of this section.
    (A) Example 1. Taxpayer E is a C corporation that is engaged in the 
retail trade or business of selling beer, wine, and liquor. In 2019, E 
has average annual gross receipts for the prior 3-taxable-years of $15 
million and is not otherwise prohibited from using the cash method 
under section 448(a)(3). E does not have an AFS for the 2019 taxable 
year. E is eligible to use the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method 
of accounting. E uses the overall cash method, and the non-AFS section 
471(c) inventory method of accounting for Federal income tax purposes. 
In E's electronic bookkeeping software, E treats all costs paid during 
the taxable year as presently deductible. As part of its regular 
business practice, E's employees take a physical count of inventory on 
E's selling floor and its warehouse on December 31, 2019, and E uses 
this physical count as part of its books and records for purposes of 
capitalizing and allocating costs to inventory. E also makes 
representations to its creditor of the cost of inventory on hand for 
specific categories of product it sells. E may not expense all of its 
costs paid during the 2019 taxable year because its books and records 
do not accurately reflect the inventory records used for non-tax 
purposes in its regular business activity. Instead, E must use the 
physical inventory count taken at the end of 2019 to determine how its 
capitalized costs are allocated and recovered.
    (B) Example 2. Same facts as Example (1) in paragraph 
(b)(6)(iii)(A) of this section but E does not use the physical count to 
capitalize and allocate costs to inventory and does not make any 
representations about inventory on hand to any creditors. Although E 
pays or incurs costs that are generally required to be capitalized to 
inventory under section 471(a), because such costs are not capitalized 
to inventory in E's books and records, they are not required to be 
capitalized to inventory under paragraph (b)(6)(i) of this section.
    (C) Example 3. Same facts as Example (1) in paragraph 
(b)(6)(iii)(A) of this section but E does not use the physical count to 
capitalize and allocate costs to inventory in its electronic 
bookkeeping software and does not make any representations about 
inventory on hand to any external parties. E does use the physical 
count to value inventory on hand for internal reports to its 
shareholders. The internal reports to its shareholders are part of E's 
books and records and must be taken into account for E's non-AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method. E recovers its inventory costs 
consistent with its non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method.
    (D) Example 4. Taxpayer F is a C corporation that is engaged in the 
manufacture of baseball bats. In 2019, F has average annual gross 
receipts for the prior 3-taxable-years of less than $25 million and is 
not otherwise prohibited from using the cash method under section 
448(a)(3). F does not have an AFS for the 2019 taxable year. For 
Federal income tax purposes, F uses the overall cash method of 
accounting, and the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method of 
accounting. For its books and records, F uses an overall accrual method 
and maintains inventories. In December 2019, F's financial statements 
show $500,000 of direct and indirect material costs. F pays its 
supplier in January 2020. Under paragraph (b)(6)(ii) of this section, F 
recovers its direct and indirect material costs in 2020.
    (E) Example 5. Taxpayer G is a baker that reports its baking trade 
or business on Schedule C, Profit or Loss From Business, of the Form 
1040, Individual Tax Return. In 2020, G's baking business has average 
annual gross receipts for the prior 3-taxable years of less than 
$100,000 and is not otherwise prohibited from using the cash method 
under section 448(a)(3). G does not have an AFS for the 2020 taxable 
year. For Federal income tax purposes, G uses the overall cash method 
of accounting and the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method. In G's 
books and records for 2020 that properly reflects its business 
activities for non-tax purposes, G capitalizes the cost of its cookie 
ingredients to inventory but immediately expenses the cost of labor for 
G's employee who bakes the cookies. Under paragraphs (b)(6)(i) and (ii) 
of this section, G treats as an inventory cost the cost of its cookie 
ingredients and recovers such costs in accordance with the accounting 
procedures used to prepare its books and records, or, if later, when 
paid. Additionally, although the cost of direct labor is generally 
required to be capitalized to inventory under section 471(a), because 
such cost is not capitalized to inventory in G's books and records, it 
is not required to be capitalized to inventory under paragraph 
(b)(6)(i) of this section. Further, because such direct labor cost is 
generally deductible under section 162, and not otherwise required to 
be capitalized under section 263(a), G may deduct the cost of labor in 
the year G pays that expense.
    (F) Example 6. Taxpayer H is a partnership engaged in the resale of 
beer, wine, and liquor. In 2020, H has average annual gross receipts 
for the prior 3-taxable-years of less than $25 million and is not 
otherwise prohibited from using the cash method under section 
448(a)(3). H does not have an AFS for the 2020 taxable year. For 
Federal income tax purposes, H uses the overall cash method of 
accounting, and the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method of 
accounting. For its books and records, H uses the overall cash method. 
As part of its regular business practice, H's employees take regular 
physical counts of the inventory on the shop floor and in the 
storeroom, however H's method of accounting for inventory for its books 
and records does not allocate costs between ending inventory and cost 
of goods sold, and instead expenses the cost of the inventory in the 
year it was paid for. Prior to December 2020, H acquires and pays for 
$500,000 of beer, wine, and liquor. In addition, on

[[Page 278]]

December 1, 2020, H acquires $50,000 in beer and wine, and pays for 
this beer and wine on December 20, 2020. H may recover as deductions in 
2020 the $550,000 of inventory costs.
    (G) Example 7. Taxpayer J is a partnership engaged in the resale of 
beer, wine, and liquor. In 2020, J has average annual gross receipts 
for the prior 3-taxable-years of less than $25 million and is not 
otherwise prohibited from using the cash method under section 
448(a)(3). J does not have an AFS for the 2020 taxable year. For 
Federal income tax purposes, J uses the overall cash method of 
accounting, and the non-AFS section 471(c) inventory method of 
accounting. For its books and records, J uses the overall cash method. 
J maintains a point-of-sale computer system that tracks acquisition 
costs and inventory levels of the beer, wine, and liquor. The ledger is 
periodically reconciled with physical counts performed by J's 
employees. J must use the physical inventory count and ledger to 
determine its ending inventory. J includes in cost of goods sold for 
2020 those inventory costs that are not properly allocated to ending 
inventory.
    (7) Effect of section 471(c) on other provisions. Nothing in 
section 471(c) shall have any effect on the application of any other 
provision of law that would otherwise apply, and no inference shall be 
drawn from section 471(c) with respect to the application of any such 
provision. For example, an accrual method taxpayer that includes 
inventory costs in its AFS is required to satisfy section 461 before 
such cost can be included in cost of goods sold for the taxable year. 
Similarly, nothing in section 471(c) affects the requirement under 
section 446(e) that a taxpayer secure the consent of the Commissioner 
before changing its method of accounting. If an item of income or 
expense is not treated consistently from year to year, that treatment 
may not clearly reflect income, notwithstanding the application of this 
section. Finally, nothing in section 471(c) permits the deduction or 
recovery of any cost that a taxpayer is otherwise precluded from 
deducting or recovering under any other provision in the Code or 
Regulations.
    (8) Method of accounting--(i) In general. A change in the method of 
treating inventory under this paragraph (b) is a change in method of 
accounting under sections 446 and 481 and the accompanying regulations. 
A taxpayer changing its method of accounting under paragraph (b) of 
this section may do so only with the consent of the Commissioner as 
required under section 446(e) and Sec.  1.446-1. For example, a 
taxpayer using the AFS section 471(c) inventory method or non-AFS 
section 471(c) inventory method that wants to change its method of 
accounting for inventory in its AFS, or its books and records, 
respectively, is required to secure the consent of the Commissioner 
before using this new method for Federal income tax purposes. However, 
a change from having an AFS to not having an AFS, or vice versa, 
without a change in the underlying method for inventory for financial 
reporting purposes that affects Federal income tax is not a change in 
method of accounting for such inventory under section 446(e). In the 
case of any taxpayer required by this section to change its method of 
accounting for any taxable year, the change shall be treated as a 
change initiated by the taxpayer. For rules relating to the clear 
reflection of income and the pattern of consistent treatment of an 
item, see section 446 and Sec.  1.446-1. The amount of the net section 
481(a) adjustment and the adjustment period necessary to implement a 
change in method of accounting required under this section are 
determined under Sec.  1.446-1(e) and the applicable administrative 
procedures to obtain the Commissioner's consent to change a method of 
accounting as published in the Internal Revenue Bulletin (see Revenue 
Procedure 2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see also Sec.  
601.601(d)(2) of this chapter).
    (ii) Automatic consent for certain method changes. Certain changes 
in method of accounting made under paragraph (b) of this section may be 
made under the procedures to obtain the automatic consent of the 
Commissioner to change a method of accounting. See Revenue Procedure 
2015-13 (2015-5 IRB 419) (or successor) (see Sec.  601.601(d)(2) of 
this chapter)). In certain situations, special terms and conditions may 
apply.
    (c) Applicability dates. This section applies for taxable years 
beginning on or after January 5, 2021. However, for a taxable year 
beginning after December 31, 2017, and before January 5, 2021, a 
taxpayer may apply this section provided that the taxpayer follows all 
the applicable rules contained in this section for such taxable year 
and all subsequent taxable years.

Douglas W. O'Donnell,
Acting Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement.
    Approved: December 18, 2020.
David J. Kautter,
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury (Tax Policy).
[FR Doc. 2020-28888 Filed 12-31-20; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE P