Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for Vandenberg Monkeyflower, 64839-64871 [2013-25397]
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Vol. 78
Tuesday,
No. 209
October 29, 2013
Part VI
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for
Vandenberg Monkeyflower; Proposed Rule
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Federal Register / Vol. 78, No. 209 / Tuesday, October 29, 2013 / Proposed Rules
(see the Information Requested section
below for more information).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
Stephen P. Henry, Acting Field
Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Ventura Fish and Wildlife
Office, 2493 Portola Road, Suite B,
Ventura, CA 93003; telephone 805–644–
1766; facsimile 805–644–3958. If you
use a telecommunications device for the
deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information
Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS–R8–ES–2013–0078;
4500030113]
RIN 1018–AY27
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
and Plants; Endangered Status for
Vandenberg Monkeyflower
Fish and Wildlife Service,
Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
AGENCY:
Executive Summary
We, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, propose to list
Vandenberg monkeyflower as an
endangered species under the
Endangered Species Act. If we finalize
this rule as proposed, it would extend
the Endangered Species Act’s
protections to this plant. The effect of
this regulation will be to add
Vandenberg monkeyflower to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants
under the Endangered Species Act.
DATES: We will accept all comments
received or postmarked on or before
December 30, 2013. Comments
submitted electronically using the
Federal eRulemaking Portal (see
ADDRESSES section below) must be
received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on
the closing date. We must receive
requests for public hearings, in writing,
at the address shown in FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT by December 13,
2013.
SUMMARY:
You may submit comments
by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal
eRulemaking Portal: https://
www.regulations.gov and search for
FWS–R8–ES–2013–0078, which is the
docket number for this rulemaking.
Then, in the Search panel on the left
side of the screen, under the Document
Type heading, click on the Proposed
Rules link to locate this document. You
may submit a comment by clicking on
‘‘Comment Now!’’
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail
or hand-delivery to: Public Comments
Processing, Attn: FWS–R8–ES–2013–
0078; Division of Policy and Directives
Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS
2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.
We request that you send comments
only by the methods described above.
We will post all information received on
https://www.regulations.gov. This
generally means that we will post any
personal information you provide us
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ADDRESSES:
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Why we need to publish a rule. Under
the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (16 U.S.C. 1531, et seq.) (Act),
if a species is determined to be an
endangered or threatened species
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range, we are required to promptly
publish a proposal in the Federal
Register and make a determination on
our proposal within 1 year. Critical
habitat shall be designated, to the
maximum extent prudent and
determinable, for any species
determined to be an endangered or
threatened species under the Act.
Listing a species as an endangered or
threatened species and designations and
revisions of critical habitat can only be
completed by issuing a rule.
This rule consists of a proposed rule
to list Vandenberg monkeyflower
(previously identified as a candidate for
listing by the name Mimulus fremontii
var. vandenbergensis, currently known
as Diplacus vandenbergensis, and
hereafter referred to as Vandenberg
monkeyflower, with the exception of the
Description and Taxonomy section
below) as an endangered species. This
plant occurs in nine locations
exclusively on Burton Mesa, a distinct
geographic region in Santa Barbara
County, California.
The basis for our action. Under the
Act, we can determine that a species is
an endangered or threatened species
based on any of five factors: (A) The
present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its
habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) Disease or
predation; (D) The inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E)
Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
We have determined Vandenberg
monkeyflower faces threats under
Factors A, D, and E. The greatest threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower is the
presence and expansion of invasive,
nonnative plants that are abundant on
Burton Mesa, particularly occurring
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within or adjacent to all known
occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat includes sandy
openings (canopy gaps) within the
dominant vegetation. Ground-disturbing
activities (including wildfires) create
additional open areas that are invaded
by nonnative plants, which precludes
establishment of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Furthermore, the
availability of habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its small overall
population size may be affected by a
suite of threats (including stochastic
events such as wildfire and a changing
climate) acting synergistically on the
species. Based on the best available
scientific and commercial information,
we find that the species has a restricted
range, faces ongoing and future threats
across its range, and is in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range.
We will seek peer review. We are
seeking comments from knowledgeable
individuals with scientific expertise to
review our analysis of the best available
science and application of that science
and to provide any additional scientific
information to improve this proposed
rule. Because we will consider all
comments and information received
during the comment period, our final
determination may differ from this
proposal.
Information Requested
We intend that any final action
resulting from this proposed rule will be
based on the best scientific and
commercial data available and be as
accurate and as effective as possible.
Therefore, we request comments or
information from the public, other
concerned governmental agencies,
Native American tribes, the scientific
community, industry, or any other
interested parties concerning this
proposed rule. We particularly seek
comments concerning:
(1) The species’ biology, range, and
population trends, including:
(a) Habitat requirements for
establishment, growth, and
reproduction;
(b) Genetics and taxonomy;
(c) Historical and current range
including distribution patterns;
(d) Historical and current population
levels, and current and projected trends;
and
(e) Past and ongoing conservation
measures for the species, its habitat, or
both.
(2) The factors that are the basis for
making a listing determination for a
species under section 4(a) of the Act (16
U.S.C. 1533(a)), which are:
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(a) The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range;
(b) Overutilization for commercial,
recreational, scientific, or educational
purposes;
(c) Disease or predation;
(d) The inadequacy of existing
regulatory mechanisms; or
(e) Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
(3) Biological, commercial trade, or
other relevant data concerning any
threats (or lack thereof) to Vandenberg
monkeyflower and regulations that may
be addressing those threats.
(4) Additional information concerning
the historical and current status, range,
distribution, and population size of
Vandenberg monkeyflower, including
the locations of any additional
occurrences of this species.
(5) Current or planned activities in the
areas occupied by Vandenberg
monkeyflower and possible impacts of
these activities on this species and its
habitat.
(6) Information on the projected and
reasonably likely impacts of climate
change on Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat.
(7) Information related to our
interpretation and analysis of the best
scientific and commercial data and our
proposed status determination for the
species.
Please include sufficient information
with your submission (such as scientific
journal articles or other publications) to
allow us to verify any scientific or
commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely
stating support for or opposition to the
action under consideration without
providing supporting information may
not meet the standard of information
required by section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act,
which requires that determinations as to
whether any species is an endangered or
threatened species must be made
‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific
and commercial data available.’’
You may submit your comments and
materials concerning this proposed rule
by one of the methods listed in
ADDRESSES. We request that you send
comments only by the methods
described in ADDRESSES.
If you submit information via https://
www.regulations.gov, your entire
submission—including any personal
identifying information—will be posted
on the Web site. If your submission is
made via a hardcopy that includes
personal identifying information, you
may request at the top of your document
that we withhold this information from
public review. However, we cannot
guarantee that we will be able to do so.
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We will post all hardcopy submissions
on https://www.regulations.gov. Please
include sufficient information with your
comments to allow us to verify any
scientific or commercial information
you include.
Comments and materials we receive,
as well as supporting documentation we
used in preparing this proposed rule,
will be available for public inspection at
https://www.regulations.gov, or by
appointment during normal business
hours at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Ventura Field Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Previous Federal Actions
We first identified Vandenberg
monkeyflower as a candidate species in
a notice of review published in the
Federal Register on November 10, 2010
(75 FR 69222). Vandenberg
monkeyflower was given a listing
priority number of 3, which denotes a
subspecies [or variety] facing an
imminent threat of high magnitude.
Notices of review reconfirming its
candidate status were also published in
the Federal Register on October 26,
2011 (76 FR 66370), and November 21,
2012 (77 FR 69994). Candidate taxa are
plants and animals for which the
Service has sufficient information on
their biological status and threats to
propose them as endangered or
threatened under the Act, but for which
development of a proposed listing
regulation is precluded by other higher
priority listing activities. We may
identify a taxon as a candidate for
listing after we conduct an evaluation of
its status on our own initiative, or after
we make a positive finding on a petition
to list a species. No petitions seeking the
listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower
have been submitted nor have other
Federal reviews been conducted for
Vandenberg monkeyflower.
On May 10, 2011, we filed a multiyear
work plan as part of a proposed
settlement agreement with Wild Earth
Guardians and others in a consolidated
case in the U.S. District Court for the
District of Columbia. On September 9,
2011, the court accepted our agreement
with plaintiffs in Endangered Species
Act Section 4 Deadline Litig., Misc.
Action No. 10–377 (EGS), MDL Docket
No. 2165 (D. DC) (known as the ‘‘MDL
case’’) on a schedule to publish
proposed rules or not-warranted
findings for the 251 species designated
as candidates in 2010 no later than
September 30, 2016. We are submitting
this proposed rule in compliance with
the MDL settlement agreement.
Elsewhere in today’s Federal Register,
we propose to designate critical habitat
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for Vandenberg monkeyflower under the
Act.
Status Assessment for Vandenberg
Monkeyflower
Background
It is our intent to discuss below only
those topics directly relevant to the
listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower as
endangered in this section of the
proposed rule.
Description and Taxonomy
Vandenberg monkeyflower is a small,
annual herbaceous plant that grows
from 0.5 to 10 inches (in) (1.2 to 25.4
centimeters (cm)) tall. The stems are
glandular and usually green with
purplish tinting. Leaves are obovate
(narrowly elliptic) and reach 1.2 in (3
cm) in length. Plants produce a single
flower or plants are branched producing
multiple flowers. The tubular yellow
flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, with
the distal ends of the petals forming a
unique structure that is likened to a
face; hence the common name
monkeyflower. Seed capsules are ovoid
and reach 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in length. The
capsule splits open longitudinally from
the tip to release approximately 20 to
100 seeds.
Vandenberg monkeyflower was first
described as Mimulus fremontii (Benth.)
A. Gray var. vandenbergensis D.M.
Thompson (Thompson 2005, p. 134) as
a member of the Scrophulariaceae
(figwort family). This is the name and
family placement we have previously
followed. Molecular systematics studies
examining members of the
Scrophulariaceae, including Mimulus,
determined that this genus and a few
others constituted a separate
monophyletic group warranting
recognition at the family rank as
Phrymaceae (Beardsley and Olmstead
2002, pp. 1193–1101; Olmstead 2002, p.
18). Placement of Mimulus in the family
Phrymaceae is recognized by species
experts, is used in the recent flora of
California (Thompson 2012, pp. 988–
998), and will be treated as such in the
upcoming volume of the Flora of North
America.
In 2012, Barker et al. (2012)
recognized a redefined genus Diplacus
that includes 46 taxa previously
segregated as Mimulus, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower as Diplacus
vandenbergensis (D.M. Thompson)
Nesom (Barker et al. 2012, p. 29). The
citation in Barker et al. (2012, p. 29)
attributes the nomenclatural
combination at the species rank to
Nesom in Phytoneuron 2012–47: 2,
which was published electronically on
the same day as Barker et al. (2012). The
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current citation for Vandenberg
monkeyflower is at the species rank as
Diplacus vandenbergensis (D.M.
Thompson) G.L. Nesom. This
combination is accepted by species and
genus experts and will be used in the
upcoming treatment in the Flora of
North America. Accordingly, we will
use the correct name (Diplacus
vandenbergensis) and family attribution
(Phrymaceae) throughout this and
subsequent documents.
Life History
The life history of Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been thoroughly
studied, but certain characteristics
appear similar to other small annual
herbs. Vandenberg monkeyflower is
shallow-rooted (Thompson 2005, p.131;
Consortium of California Herbaria
(Consortium 2010)) and has seeds that
germinate during winter rains, typically
between November and February
(Thompson 2005, p. 23), which is
similar to other small annual species
that grow in sandy openings in
chaparral and are adapted to the
Mediterranean climate zone of
California. For instance, Lessingia
glandulifera (lessingia) is an annual
herb that grows in sandy openings in
chaparral, is shallow-rooted, and is
commonly associated with Vandenberg
monkeyflower (Davis and Mooney 1985,
p. 528). Rooting depth is positively
related to above-ground size, with
annuals having the smallest aboveground size and rooting depth in the
soil (Schenk and Jackson 2002, pp. 484–
485).
Vandenberg monkeyflower is
sensitive to annual levels of rainfall
(Thompson 2005, p. 23), and, therefore,
germination of resident seed banks may
be low or nonexistent in unfavorable
years, with little or no visible
aboveground expression of the species.
Many annual monkeyflower species,
including Vandenberg monkeyflower,
need early rainfall along with continued
rains in late winter or early spring for
a substantial number of seeds to
germinate, and do not respond well
when only later rainfall is available
(Thompson 2005, p. 23; Fraga in litt.
2012). Vandenberg monkeyflower
flowers mostly from late March through
June with fruits maturing from late
April through July (Thompson 2005, p.
130).
Seed banks develop when a plant
produces more viable seeds than
germinate in any given year. Seed banks
contribute to the long-term persistence
of a species by sustaining them through
periods when conditions are not
conducive to adequately germinate,
reproduce, and replenish the seed bank
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(such as when there is not sufficient
rainfall for plants to germinate, grow,
and produce enough seeds to maintain
the population at the same size from
year to year) (Rees and Long 1992,
entire; Adams et al. 2005, pp. 432–434;
Satterthwaite et al. 2007, entire). The
annual differences in the numbers and
location of aboveground plants indicate
the presence of a seed bank.
The reproductive biology of
Vandenberg monkeyflower has not been
specifically studied; however, it is likely
similar to closely related Diplacus
species that occur in similar habitats. In
general, annual species of Diplacus are
self-compatible (able to be fertilized by
its own pollen) but are also visited by
a wide array of pollinators, which
results in a mixed mating system that
utilizes both self-fertilization and crossfertilization (Sutherland and Vickery
1988, p. 334; Leclerc-Potvin and Ritland
1994, pp. 201–204; Fraga in litt. 2012).
The large size of the flower relative to
the size of the plant suggests that
Vandenberg monkeyflower is allocating
significant resources into attracting
pollinators; therefore, this species is
thought to typically breed through
outcrossing, and is dependent on
pollinators to achieve seed production
(Fraga in litt. 2012).
Species of Diplacus are
predominantly bee-pollinated, although
the genus also includes species that are
pollinated by hummingbirds, hawk
moths (Sphingidae), beeflies
(Bombyliidae), and other flies (order
Diptera) (Wu et al. 2008, p. 224).
Species of bees that have been observed
to visit flowers of Vandenberg
monkeyflower include sweat bees
(Dufourea versatilis rubriventris), miner
bees (Perdita nitens, Caliopsis
[Nomadopsis] fracta and C. Nomadopsis
trifolii), mason bees (Hoplitis product
bernardina), and leaf-cutter bees
(Anthidium collectum, Chelostoma
cockerelli, C. minutum, C. phaceliae,
Chelostomopsis rubifloris, and
Ashmeadiella timberlakei timberlakei)
(Krombein et al. 1979, pp. 1863–2030;
Bugguide 2012; The Xerces Society
2012). Additionally, Inouye (in litt.
2012) observed that small solitary bees
were the most common pollinators on
three other species of small annual
monkeyflower species from dry and
mesic habitats (D. androsaceus, D.
angustatus, and D. douglasii); and Fraga
(in litt. 2012) has observed halictid bees
(Halictidae) on other small
monkeyflower species.
Seeds of Vandenberg monkeyflower
are small and light in weight, dispersing
primarily by gravity and also by water
and wind over relatively short distances
(Thompson 2005, p. 130; Fraga in litt.
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2012). The small size of the seed makes
it likely that short-distance dispersal
could also be facilitated by ants, as has
been noted for other small-seeded plant
taxa (Cain et al. 1998, pp. 328–330).
Given that the Burton Mesa area is
subject to occasional high winds (see
discussion in Climate section below),
long-distance dispersal likely occurs
during these wind events. Wind
dispersal results in a random dispersal
of seeds, some of which fall into
suitable habitat and some do not.
Geographic Setting
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs
only at low elevations and close to the
coast in a distinct region in western
Santa Barbara County known as Burton
Mesa (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2).
Burton Mesa is a physiographic region
situated between the Purisima Hills to
the north and the Santa Ynez River to
the south. The topography of Burton
Mesa comprises a low, flat-topped series
of hills averaging 400 feet (ft) (133
meters (m)) in elevation (Ferren et al.
1984, p. 3; Dibblee 1988). Level upland
expanses from 328 to 394 ft (100 to 120
m) above sea level are dissected by
streams that have formed wide valleys
with short steep slopes (Davis 1987, p.
318). Underlying this region is the
Burton Mesa dune sheet, which extends
from Shuman Canyon on Vandenberg
Air Force Base (AFB) in the north,
roughly southeast along the southern
slopes of the Purisima Hills and
eastward to a point approximately 22 mi
(35 km) from the present shoreline in
the Santa Ynez River Valley (Cooper
1967, pp. 89–91; Hunt 1993, pp. 8–9).
Climate
Burton Mesa experiences a
Mediterranean climate, with mild, moist
winters and moderately warm, rainless
summers. The region is strongly
influenced by the prevailing westerly
transoceanic air currents. Late afternoon
and early evening are often
characterized by onshore breezes or
winds during most of the year, but
winds are strongest and persistent in
late spring and early summer. A marine
layer or fog characterizes this coastal
region and is heaviest during late spring
and early summer mornings. Frost is
also a regular occurrence in winter,
especially in low-lying areas (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 39).
Habitat
Burton Mesa supports a mosaic of
several native vegetation types,
including maritime chaparral, maritime
chaparral mixed with coastal scrub, oak
woodland, and small patches of native
grasslands (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010,
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p. 2). The maritime chaparral on Burton
Mesa is referred to as Burton Mesa
chaparral (Odion et al. 1992, pp. 5–6;
Sawyer et al. 2009, p. 376), and is
dominated by evergreen shrubs and
scattered multi-trunked Quercus
agrifolia (coast live oak) that form open
stands to almost impenetrable thickets
over large areas of Burton Mesa, with
heights reaching up to 13 ft (4 m)
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, pp. 95–96). The
dominant endemic species of Burton
Mesa chaparral include Ceanothus
(Ceanothus impressus var. impressus
(Santa Barbara ceanothus) and C.
cuneatus var. fascicularis (Lompoc
ceanothus)) and Arctostaphylos
(Arctostaphylos purissima (Purisima
manzanita) and A. rudis (shagbark
manzanita)), along with the more
widespread Adenostoma fasciculatum
(chamise), Heteromeles arbutifolia
(toyon), Cercocarpus betuloides
(birchleaf mountain mahogany), Salvia
mellifera (black sage), and Rhamnus
californica (California coffeeberry).
Coast live oak is an important
dominant in many places on Burton
Mesa, attaining 40 to 70 percent crown
cover in older undisturbed patches of
habitat. Ericameria ericoides (mock
heather), with its wind-dispersed seeds,
is most often observed at trail edges in
dense chaparral, but appears in greater
numbers in large open areas and coastal
scrub (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 96). Annual
grassland and coastal sage scrub
characterized by mock heather,
Artemisia californica (California
sagebrush), and Baccharis pilularis
(coyote brush) occur on formerly cleared
sites and on xeric (dry) slopes. Some
poorly drained upland sites in the
central and western portions of Burton
Mesa form seasonal wetlands
characterized by native perennial
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grasses such as Elymus glaucus (blue
wildrye) and vernal pool species
including Eryngium armatum (coastal
button-celery) (Davis et al. 1988, p. 172).
The vegetation transitions to coastal
sage scrub habitat as it nears the ocean
and into other terrestrial habitats east of
Purisima Canyon on the eastern side of
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
(SHP) (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 86). The
edaphic (soil) variable with the greatest
effect on vegetation composition is the
depth of soil overlying the bedrock or
subsoil pan (Davis et al. 1988, p. 188).
Soils on Burton Mesa become very
shallow toward the north and west, and
chaparral shrubs decrease in height and
density with decreasing soil depth
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 6).
Vandenberg monkeyflower does not
grow beneath the canopy of shrubs or
oaks, but rather in the sandy openings
(canopy gaps) that occur in-between
shrubs. Sandy openings have been
noted for their high abundance and
diversity of annual and perennial
herbaceous species, compared to those
found in the understory of the shrub
canopy (Hickson 1987, Davis et al. 1989;
Keeley et al. 1981; Horton and Kraebel
1955). Vandenberg monkeyflower is
currently known to occur within sandy
openings at nine extant locations; one
additional location is potentially
extirpated (see Distribution of
Vandenberg Monkeyflower below).
Because portions of Burton Mesa are
inaccessible and difficult to survey,
Vandenberg monkeyflower has the
potential to occur in areas where it has
not yet been observed within sandy
openings. However, not all sandy
openings within the shrub canopy
appear to be currently suitable for
Vandenberg monkeyflower because
some of the sandy openings consist of
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sands that structurally seem more
consolidated and currently do not
support this species (Rutherford in litt.
2012). To date, all of the extant
occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower are within sandy
openings where the structure of the
sands appears loose (Rutherford in litt.
2012).
The amount of Vandenberg
monkeyflower suitable habitat currently
available has changed over time. Prior to
1938, approximately 23,550 ac (9,350
ha) of maritime chaparral was present
on Burton Mesa (Hickson 1987, p. 34).
For the purposes of this analysis, we
determined in 2012 that approximately
10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of maritime
chaparral habitat remain on Burton
Mesa, which represents a loss of 53
percent of the original upland habitat
(Figure 1; Service 2012a, unpublished
data). We then estimated the amount of
Burton Mesa considered as sandy
openings where Vandenberg
monkeyflower could potentially occur.
Based on inspection of color imagery
(National Agriculture Imagery Program
(NAIP) 2009) of areas within Burton
Mesa where this species occurs, we
used the range of image pixel values
among 20 point locations to define bare
ground while all other pixel values
defined vegetated areas. We calculated
the total area encompassed by bare
ground and vegetation by multiplying
the number of bare ground and
vegetated pixels by 1 square meter (the
ground resolution of a pixel in the NAIP
data). Roads, buried pipeline rights-ofway, and building footprints were
removed to estimate the percent of
Burton Mesa that currently comprise
sandy openings.
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Results indicate up to approximately
20 percent of the total area of remaining
Burton Mesa chaparral comprises sandy
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openings, which is a high estimate
because this may include areas of bare
ground that are not sandy openings
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suitable for Vandenberg monkeyflower,
such as walking trails (Service 2012b,
unpublished data). The percentage
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would likely change over time
depending on whether chaparral stands
continue to age and increase in canopy
cover, or are burned to temporarily
increase the amount of sandy openings.
Additionally, the location of sandy
openings on Burton Mesa would likely
shift over time because individual
shrubs continue to mature and increase
in cover or die, creating temporary gaps
in the shrub canopy.
The structure of Burton Mesa
chaparral comprises a mosaic of
vegetation patches interspersed with
sandy openings that varies from place to
place. Within a given substrate, the
chaparral composition is a reflection of
stand age or shrub canopy cover,
disturbance history (whether the area
was cleared in the past or nonnative
species were planted), history of
wildfire, and distance from the coast
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 188; Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 97). Although the sandy
openings that Vandenberg
monkeyflower occupies are only a small
percent of the total amount of Burton
Mesa chaparral habitat, because the
sandy openings and vegetation form a
mosaic vegetation community that
structurally may vary over time, it is
impossible to separate out the sandy
openings from the rest of the Burton
Mesa chaparral vegetation. Therefore,
for the purposes of this rule, we
consider suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat to consist of
Burton Mesa chaparral, which would
include the sandy openings and the
dominant vegetation that characterize
this vegetation community.
Other low-growing native annual
species that often co-occur with
Vandenberg monkeyflower in sandy
openings include: Mucronea californica
(California spineflower); Castillleja
exserta (purple owl’s clover); Logfia
filaginoides (California filago); Lessingia
glandulifera (lessingia); Layia
glandulosa (white tidy tips); Chaenactis
glabriuscula (pincushion); and Plantago
erecta (plantain). Frequently cooccurring herbaceous native perennial
species include Horkelia cuneata
(horkelia) and Croton californicus
(croton) (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Nonnative annual and perennial species
are also known to occur in Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat. Nonnative
annual species include (but are not
limited to) Bromus diandrus (ripgut
brome) and Hypochaeris glabra (smooth
cat’s-ear) (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Nonnative perennial species include:
Ehrharta calycina (South African
perennial veldt grass (veldt grass)),
Carpobrotus edulis (iceplant), Brassica
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tournefortii (Sahara mustard), and
Cortaderia jubata (pampas grass).
Land Ownership
The western portion of Burton Mesa
is Federal land within Vandenberg AFB
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 170). Vandenberg
AFB contains approximately 99,000
acres (ac) (40,064 hectares (ha));
approximately 8,114 ac (3,284 ha) is
maritime chaparral mixed with coastal
sage scrub, veldt grass, pampas grass,
herbs, and coast live oak on Burton
Mesa within Base boundaries (Air Force
2011c, Appendix A—Figure 5–3; Lum
in litt. 2012d). Vandenberg AFB is
managed by the U.S. Air Force.
To the east of Vandenberg AFB, the
State of California received 5,078 ac
(2,055 ha) from Union Oil Company in
1990 as part of a settlement of two
antitrust lawsuits (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
2). The land acquired by the State
formed the Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve (Reserve) and encompasses
most of the maritime chaparral that
occurs to the east of Vandenberg AFB
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 6). The western
boundary of the Reserve abuts the
eastern boundary of Vandenberg AFB
and is delineated by a 100-ft (30-m)
wide fuel break (a gap in vegetation
designed to act as a barrier to slow
progress of a potential wildfire).
Additional lands have since been added
to the Reserve since 1990, bringing its
total acreage to 5,186 ac (2,099 ha)
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 3). The Reserve
contains five management units
(Vandenberg, Santa Lucia, Purisima
Hills, Encina, and La Purisima) and is
situated on the eastern Burton Mesa and
foothills of the Purisima Hills (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 7). The Reserve is managed
by the California Department of Fish
and Wildlife (CDFW). CDFW was
formerly California Department of Fish
and Game (CDFG), and because historic
documents prior to 2013 use this old
name, the abbreviations CDFG and
CDFW will both be used
interchangeably for references cited
throughout the remainder of this
document.
Residential communities such as
Vandenberg Village, Clubhouse Estates,
Mesa Oaks, and Mission Hills fragment
(divide into small noncontiguous
pieces) the Reserve and other nonFederal lands on Burton Mesa. The
southern portion of the mesa and
beyond the southern boundary of the
Reserve comprises agricultural lands as
well as land owned by the Department
of Justice (which houses the U.S. Bureau
of Prisons Federal Penitentiary Complex
at Lompoc (Lompoc Penitentiary)). The
jagged northern perimeter of Burton
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Mesa is adjacent to an active oil field
operated by Plains Exploration and
Production Company (PXP).
To the east of the Reserve, La
Purisima Mission State Historic Park
(SHP) contains 980 ac (397 ha)
(California State Parks 1991, p. 9) and is
separated from the Reserve by the
residential communities of Mesa Oaks
and Mission Hills. La Purisima Mission
SHP also abuts the southern boundary
of the La Purisima Management Unit of
the Reserve. California State Parks
manages La Purisima Mission SHP.
Distribution of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower
For the purposes of this rule, we
define the following terms to refer to
individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower and where they occur.
We use the term ‘‘occurrence’’
(consistent with the definition for
‘‘element occurrence’’ used by the
California Natural Diversity Data Base
(CNDDB)) to be a grouping of plants
(individuals) within 0.25 mi (0.4 km)
proximity (CNDDB 2010). There may be
one or more discrete groupings of plants
(individuals) within a single occurrence.
We use the term ‘‘location’’ to refer only
to a particular site, area, or region, as in
‘‘at that location,’’ with no relation to an
assemblage of plants (e.g., polygon,
occurrence, population).
We generally describe the area on
Burton Mesa where Vandenberg
monkeyflower currently occurs as a
crescent-shaped area approximately 7
mi (10.7 km) long by 2 mi (3.0 km)
wide. All extant individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower are located
within this area (Consortium) 2010),
almost exclusively occurring on thin
layers of aeolian- (wind-) deposited
sands between approximately 100 and
400 ft (30 to 122 m) in elevation (Wilken
and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2). We based the
description of suitable habitat on
viewing U.S. Geological Survey maps
and Google Earth©, and looking at how
the occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower were spread across the
landscape. We did not analyze
biological factors such as vegetation or
soil type when describing this general
area where the species occurs. A
discussion of where Vandenberg
monkeyflower has been historically
observed and where it is currently
known to occur follows below.
Additionally, Figure 2 includes the
known distribution of Vandenberg
monkeyflower across its range based on
the most recent survey data; Table 1
lists the names of the occurrences, land
ownership, and status of each known
and historical occurrence.
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BILLING CODE 4310–55–C
Historical Locations
We are aware of historical herbarium
collections of Vandenberg
monkeyflower from two locations; one
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of these (Santa Rita Valley) no longer
supports habitat for this species
(Consortium 2010), and we consider it
to be extirpated. The second collection
was made from Lower Pine Canyon;
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although plants have not been relocated
at lower Pine Canyon, we consider this
collection to be a part of the Pine
Canyon occurrence, which is extant. In
addition to these two collections, an
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historical occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower was observed, but not
collected, from Lower Santa Lucia
Canyon; we consider it to be potentially
extirpated. Additional detail on the
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower at these three historical
locations is provided below.
The first historical collection of
Vandenberg monkeyflower was made in
1931 from the Santa Ynez Valley
approximately 5 mi (8 km) west of
Buellton along State Highway 246 and
east of La Purisima (Consortium 2010;
Santa Barbara Botanic Garden (SBBG)
2005). This site was surveyed multiple
times in 2006 (Wilken and Wardlaw
2010, Appendix 2); however, no
Vandenberg monkeyflower were seen.
At some point prior to 1931, seed from
Burton Mesa may have blown
downwind to this location, but it
appears that Vandenberg monkeyflower
has been extirpated at this location
because no suitable habitat remains due
to agricultural conversion (including
vineyards and berries (Elvin 2009, pers.
obs.) and heavily grazed pastureland
(Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, Appendix
2). Therefore, we consider the
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower to be extirpated from this
location.
The second historical collection of
Vandenberg monkeyflower was made in
1960 near lower Pine Canyon (part of
the existing Pine Canyon occurrence) on
the eastern edge of Vandenberg AFB
(Jepson Herbarium 2006; Rancho Santa
Ana Botanic Garden 2006). Vandenberg
monkeyflower had not been
documented since it was collected there
in 1960; however, it was observed in
2010 and 2012 up-canyon from this
historical location (Lum in litt. 2012a,
Rutherford in litt. 2012) where suitable
habitat remains. (See further discussion
of Pine Canyon in Current Locations
section below). The description of the
location of this historical occurrence is
not precise enough to determine that the
location is distinct from, and not part of,
the location where an extant occurrence
was observed in 2010 and 2012 in upper
Pine Canyon (See Occurrences Located
on Vandenberg AFB section below).
Therefore, we consider the historical
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower to be part of the extant
Pine Canyon occurrence.
The third historical location of
Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed, but not collected, in 1985 in
the southwestern portion of the
Vandenberg Management Unit on the
Reserve (Hickson in litt. 2007).
Although no collection was made, we
have a high confidence in the accuracy
of the observation (known as the Lower
Santa Lucia Canyon occurrence; Figure
2) because it was made during the
course of a vegetation study for a
master’s thesis (Hickson in litt. 2007).
The location had not been searched for
the species between 1985 and 2011; in
2012 (a low rainfall year), CDFW staff
(Meyer) conducted a cursory survey and
was unable to relocate the species
(Meyer in litt. 2012c). Because it has
been approximately 30 years (albeit
with little survey effort between 1985
and 2011) since it was last observed,
and suitable habitat remains but is
overcrowded with invasive, nonnative
plants (see Factor A—Invasive,
Nonnative Plants), we consider the
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower at this historical location
to be potentially extirpated.
Current Status of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower
Because we do not have a wealth of
survey data over multiple years to
analyze a trend in the long-term
persistence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, we consider it most
appropriate to use suitable habitat
trends as a surrogate for the species’
trend. Thus, an increase or decrease in
the amount of suitable habitat likely
results in a respective increase or
decrease in the Vandenberg
monkeyflower population.
Surveys for Vandenberg
monkeyflower have occurred across this
species’ range on Burton Mesa during
recent years, although the level of effort
and precision of the surveys varied
between the different biologists who
conducted surveys. In 2006, the first
year that a concerted effort was made to
survey most of the known locations,
approximately 2,700 individuals were
observed during surveys throughout the
known range of the species (Ballard
2006; Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, pp. 2–
3, Appendices 1, 2). In 2010, the Air
Force observed approximately 5,200
individuals during surveys conducted
on 376 ac (152 ha) within Vandenberg
AFB (Air Force 2012).
In other years, individuals and
agencies (including Air Force, CDFW,
and our biologists) have conducted
opportunistic surveys of specific sites
where this species occurs, but
rangewide surveys have not been
conducted since 2006. Ballard (in litt.
2009) searched for Vandenberg
monkeyflower in areas between extant
occurrences and on the periphery of the
plant’s known distribution but found no
plants. Additionally, the species has not
been observed in some areas with sandy
openings that appear to be suitable
habitat (Ballard in litt. 2009). These
areas: (1) Appear slightly degraded,
even though many species commonly
associated with Vandenberg
monkeyflower were often abundant; (2)
contain small pockets of sandy
openings, but the sands did not appear
to contain a loose enough structure to
support Vandenberg monkeyflower; or
(3) harbor a dominant amount of
invasive, nonnative plants within sandy
openings. The ability for Vandenberg
monkeyflower to grow in sandy
openings may depend upon the stand
age and disturbance history of the
location, as well as edaphic factors
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 188), along with
the amount of rainfall, size of the seed
bank, and competition with invasive,
nonnative plants.
The following sections provide a
description of nine specific locations
(which contain all extant occurrences
identified in Figure 2) where
Vandenberg monkeyflower is known to
occur, hereby referred to as nine
occurrences. All known occurrences are
on the following lands: Vandenberg
AFB (four occurrences), Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve (three occurrences),
and La Purisima Mission SHP (two
occurrences) (See Figure 2; Table 1).
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TABLE 1—VANDENBERG MONKEYFLOWER LOCATIONS, LAND OWNERSHIP, AND CURRENT STATUS
Vandenberg monkeyflower locations
Land ownership
Current status
Current Locations
1. Oak Canyon ...................................................
2. Pine Canyon (includes historical location in
lower Pine Canyon).
3. Lake Canyon ..................................................
4. Santa Lucia Canyon ......................................
5. Volans Avenue ...............................................
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Vandenberg AFB ..............................................
Vandenberg AFB ..............................................
Extant.
Extant.
Vandenberg AFB ..............................................
Vandenberg AFB ..............................................
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve .....................
Extant.
Extant.
Extant.
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TABLE 1—VANDENBERG MONKEYFLOWER LOCATIONS, LAND OWNERSHIP, AND CURRENT STATUS—Continued
Vandenberg monkeyflower locations
Land ownership
6. Clubhouse Estates .........................................
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve and Private
lands.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve .....................
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park .........
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park .........
7. Davis Creek ...................................................
8. La Purisima West ..........................................
9. La Purisima East ...........................................
Current status
Extant.
Extant.
Extant.
Extant.
Historical Locations
Private lands ....................................................
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve .....................
Extirpated.
Potentially Extirpated.
Occurrences Located on Vandenberg
AFB
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Santa Rita Valley ...............................................
Lower Santa Lucia Canyon ...............................
(Rutherford in litt. 2012). A seed bank
is likely present.
(4) Santa Lucia Canyon. This canyon
is located on the eastern edge of
Vandenberg AFB at the junction of
Santa Lucia and Lakes Canyons and
abuts the Reserve that lies to the east.
Approximately 25 individuals were
observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and 1
individual was observed in 2010 (Lum
in litt. 2012b). Although surveys have
not occurred at this location since 2010,
we consider the species to be extant at
this location because it has only been 3
years since the species was last seen,
and it is likely that a residual seed bank
is still present.
residential development project site,
which has ongoing but differing levels
of development since 2006, and an
adjacent portion of the Encina
Management Unit of the Reserve. Prior
to 2006, most of the plants occurred on
private property at the Clubhouse
Estates project site (Scientific
Applications International Corporation
(SAIC) 2005b, Figure 4.3–2).
Approximately 100–285 individuals
were observed in 2006 (Wilken and
Wardlaw 2010, Appendices 1, 2), and
approximately 350–400 individuals
were observed in 2009 (McGowan in litt.
2009). Although no surveys have
occurred since 2009, we consider the
species to be extant at this location
because it has only been 4 years since
individuals were last seen, and it is
likely that both plants and a residual
seed bank are present.
(7) Davis Creek. Vandenberg
monkeyflower is located along the
western border of the Encina
Management Unit of the Reserve and a
right-of-way (ROW) for California State
Highway 1 managed by the California
Department of Transportation. Davis
Creek is east of Vandenberg Village and
less than 1 mi (1.6 km) south of the
Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals
at Clubhouse Estates.
The Davis Creek occurrence
comprises four locations where
Vandenberg monkeyflower has been
observed. At ‘‘west of Highway 1,’’
researchers reported 3 individuals in
2006 (Ballard 2006), approximately 100
in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in litt.
2009), and 60 in 2010 (Meyer in litt.
2010a). At ‘‘north of Burton Mesa
Boulevard,’’ four individuals were
observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and
seven individuals were observed in
2010 (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Subsequently, 180 individuals were
observed in 2010 at a third location east
of the Vandenberg Village Community
Services District Pump Station and
between Highway 1 and Burton Mesa
Boulevard (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Similarly, approximately 500
There are four locations on
Vandenberg AFB that are known to
support occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. We refer to these four
locations as the Oak, Pine, Lake, and
Santa Lucia Canyons occurrences.
(1) Oak Canyon. Vandenberg
monkeyflower was reported as common
in the late 1980s or early 1990s (Odion
in litt. 2006) at the mouth of Oak
Canyon on the eastern edge of the Base.
Four individuals were found in 2006
(Ventura Fish and Wildlife Herbarium
(VFWO) 2013). Although no plants were
found in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012,
p. 1; Lum in litt. 2012b; Rutherford in
litt. 2012), as discussed above in the
Background—Life History section, we
consider the species to be extant at this
location because it has only been 7 years
since individuals were last seen, and it
is likely that a residual seed bank is still
present.
(2) Pine Canyon. Approximately 365
individuals were present in multiple
scattered occurrences in upper Pine
Canyon in 2010 (Lum in litt. 2012b), and
approximately 100 individuals were
observed in 2012 (Rutherford in litt.
2012).
(3) Lake Canyon. This occurrence
contains the greatest number of
individuals throughout this species’
range and accounts for most of the
individuals on Vandenberg AFB.
Approximately 1,500 individuals were
observed in 2006 and 1,000 individuals
in 2007 (Elvin in litt. 2009; VFWO
2013). The most recent surveys in Lake
Canyon occurred in 2010 and
documented approximately 4,817
individuals (Lum in litt. 2012b),
although these surveys likely included a
larger portion of the canyon than
surveys conducted in 2006 and 2007.
Even though surveys have not occurred
at this location since 2010, plants were
also observed at several sites in Lake
Canyon in 2012. Therefore, we consider
the species to be extant at this location
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Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs or
partially occurs (i.e., part of the
occurrence is on the Reserve and part of
the occurrence is off the Reserve) at
three locations within the Reserve. We
refer to these locations as the Volans
Avenue, Clubhouse Estates, and Davis
Creek occurrences.
(5) Volans Avenue. Individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower have been
observed in the Santa Lucia
Management Unit of the Reserve
immediately west of Volans Avenue,
between a portion of Vandenberg
Village and California State Highway 1.
The Santa Lucia Management Unit abuts
the eastern boundary of Vandenberg
AFB. Five plants were observed in 2003,
and one plant was observed in 2007
(Meyer in litt. 2007). In the other years
between 2004 and 2006, and in 2009, no
plants were found (Meyer in litt. 2007;
Ballard in litt. 2007; Meyer in litt.
2009a). Although no surveys have
occurred since 2009, we consider the
species to be extant at this location
because it has only been 6 years since
individuals were last seen, and it is
likely that a residual seed bank is still
present.
(6) Clubhouse Estates. Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs east of
Vandenberg Village on both the
privately owned Clubhouse Estates
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individuals were observed in 2010 at a
fourth location northwest of the location
where 180 individuals were observed in
2010, and to the west of the 7
individuals observed in 2010 that were
located north of the Burton Mesa
Boulevard. Individuals were also
observed at several of these locations in
2012 and 2013. We consider the species
to be extant at this location because
individuals have been seen as recently
as 2013 (Meyer in litt. 2013).
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Occurrences Located on La Purisima
Mission SHP
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs at
two separate locations within La
Purisima Mission SHP. We refer to these
locations of Vandenberg monkeyflower
as the La Purisima West and La
Purisima East occurrences.
(8) La Purisima West. Vandenberg
monkeyflower that occur on the west
side of the park are located in a discrete
location. Approximately 300
individuals were observed in 2006
(Ballard 2006), and approximately 1,500
individuals were observed in 2009
(Rutherford and Ballard in litt. 2009).
Subsequently, individuals were
observed here in 2010 and 2011 but not
counted (Rutherford in litt. 2012).
Although no observations have occurred
since 2011, we consider the species to
be extant at this location because it has
been only 2 years since individuals
were last observed (although not
counted), and it is likely that both
plants and a residual seed bank are
present.
(9) La Purisima East. Vandenberg
monkeyflower that occur on the east
side of the park are made up of
hundreds of scattered individuals.
Approximately 850 individuals were
observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006) and
approximately 400 individuals were
observed in 2009 (Rutherford and
Ballard in litt. 2009). Although no
surveys have occurred since 2009, we
consider the species to be extant at this
location because it has been only 4 years
since individuals were last seen, and it
is likely that both plants and a residual
seed bank are present.
Summary—Distribution and Status of
Vandenberg Monkeyflower
In summary, we identified one
extirpated location where Vandenberg
monkeyflower no longer exists, one
location that is considered potentially
extirpated, and nine locations where
Vandenberg monkeyflower is currently
considered extant on Burton Mesa. Most
of these extant locations contain
multiple scattered individuals, and thus
we refer to these areas as nine
occurrences, as defined above. We
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generally characterized the size of
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences
based on multiple observations over a
period of years. Two of the nine
occurrences (22 percent; Lake Canyon
and La Purisima West) each contained
over 1,000 individuals in multiple years
and are the two largest known
occurrences of this species. These
largest occurrences include a high of
approximately 1,500 individuals at Lake
Canyon in 2006 (Elvin in litt. 2009;
VFWO 2013) and 1,500 individuals at
La Purisima West in 2009 (Rutherford
and Ballard in litt. 2009). Four
occurrences (44 percent; Pine Canyon,
Clubhouse Estates, Davis Creek, and La
Purisima East) each contained hundreds
of plants ranging between 100 and 850
individuals in multiple years. Finally,
three occurrences (33 percent; Oak
Canyon, Santa Lucia Canyon, and
Volans Avenue) are the smallest, with a
range of no individuals observed in
most years surveyed (Volans Avenue) to
a high of 25 individuals observed in
2006 (Santa Lucia Canyon). Although
trend data are not available, these data
indicate that the aboveground
expression of Vandenberg
monkeyflower for 7 of the 9 occurrences
(78 percent) harbor 850 or fewer
individuals.
Because we have only one rangewide
survey for this species, and because
based on our current data and the
likelihood that Vandenberg
monkeyflower forms a seed bank and
expresses variable numbers of
aboveground individuals from year to
year (see Background—Life History
section above), we are unable to
determine a trend in the Vandenberg
monkeyflower population. Therefore,
we will use trends in the amount of
suitable habitat as a surrogate for the
species’ trend.
Summary of Factors Affecting the
Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533),
and its implementing regulations at 50
CFR part 424, set forth the procedures
for adding species to the Federal Lists
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the
Act, we may list a species based on any
of the following five factors: (A) The
present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its
habitat or range; (B) overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or
predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E)
other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence. Listing
actions may be warranted based on any
of the above threat factors, singly or in
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combination. Each of these factors is
discussed below.
Factor A. The Present or Threatened
Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range
Factor A threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat include
development (military, State lands, and
residential), utility maintenance and
miscellaneous activities, invasive,
nonnative plants, anthropogenic
(influenced by human-caused activity)
fire, recreation, and climate change.
These impact categories overlap or act
in concert with each other to adversely
affect Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat.
Development—Military
Development of Vandenberg AFB
military facilities within the last century
directly removed approximately 6,104
ac (2,470 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral
habitat. Approximately 40 percent of the
chaparral that historically occurred on
Vandenberg AFB remains, mostly south
and east of the primary developed area
on Vandenberg AFB (Odion et al. 1992,
p. 12). West of the developed area has
been impacted by numerous trails,
roads, and other ground disturbances.
Much of the chaparral habitat that once
existed to the north of the primary
developed area was cultivated or typeconverted (disturbance resulting in a
new dominant plant community) to
rangeland prior to military use. Areas
that historically consisted of chaparral
vegetation have regenerated to
nonnative grassland, usually with
shrubs, and are no longer considered
suitable habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower. This nonnative
grassland is dominated by veldt grass
and several species of nonnative annual
grasses including Bromus spp. (bromes),
Avena spp. (oatgrass), and Vulpia spp.
(silvergrass) (Odion et al. 1992, p. 11).
The Air Force maintains multiple
launch facilities at Vandenberg AFB to
accomplish their mission (Air Force
2011c, p. 7). There are no launch
facilities in suitable habitat for
Vandenberg monkeyflower, and the Air
Force is not likely to construct new
launch facilities within suitable habitat
because potential construction would
likely occur near the coastline and away
from more inland, human-populated
areas (Air Force 2009a, p. 16).
Additionally, the siting of future
facilities is expected to capitalize on
existing infrastructure; therefore,
disturbance in undeveloped areas
would be minimized (Air Force 2009a,
p. 32).
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Development—State Lands
Prior to the State Lands Commission
acquisition of the Reserve lands in 1990,
four land uses were identified in the
Reserve area, including agricultural
operations, military operations,
extractive industries, and urban
development (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 54).
The Reserve encompasses 5,186 ac
(2,099 ha) and there has been no threat
from new development. However, local
governmental agencies and public
utility companies maintain existing
utilities and easements throughout the
Reserve (see Factor A—Utility
Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities below).
La Purisima Mission SHP has
operated as a State Park since 1937
(California State Parks 1991, p. 107).
The current park boundaries encompass
a total of 1,900 ac (769 ha). The park
unit consists of the historical area,
natural area with riding and hiking
trails, agriculture, and the maintenance/
service and residential area. The total
amount of native vegetation is
approximately 1,770 ac (716 ha)
(Service 2013, unpublished data). There
is no current or future threat of habitat
destruction from development at La
Purisima Mission SHP because the park
was established to preserve cultural and
natural features of the area.
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Development—Private Lands
Three residential communities exist
on Burton Mesa east of Vandenberg
AFB’s boundary including Vandenberg
Village, Mission Hills, and Mesa Oaks.
These communities harbor associated
infrastructure (including major roads
such as California State Highway 1,
Harris Grade Road, Rucker Road, and
Burton Mesa Boulevard), all of which
fragment the Burton Mesa chaparral.
Vandenberg Village and associated golf
course comprise approximately 720 ac
(291 ha). Thus, at least 2,000 ac (809 ha)
of Burton Mesa chaparral habitat were
removed as a result of past development
of these three residential communities
and their associated infrastructure.
Presented below are three currently
approved or proposed projects on
private lands that harbor suitable
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Data
are not available on the specific acreage
of sandy openings expected to be lost as
a result of these projects, but data are
provided on the loss of Burton Mesa
chaparral and the number of individuals
of Vandenberg monkeyflower observed
at, or adjacent to, these project sites.
(1) Clubhouse Estates is a private
development located east of Vandenberg
Village (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1). Santa
Barbara County approved the Clubhouse
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Estates housing development in August
2005 (County of Santa Barbara Planning
Commission 2005, p. 4). Approximately
33 ac (13 ha) were proposed to be
developed into residential lots; the
remaining 120 ac (49 ha) was proposed
as open space (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1).
Most of the Vandenberg monkeyflower
individuals known to occur at this
location were inside or within 10 ft (3
m) of the approved development
footprint that was graded (SAIC 2005b,
Figure 4.3–2). Additionally, the ground
disturbance increased the extent of
invasive, nonnative species at this
location, particularly Sahara mustard
and veldt grass (Meyer in litt. 2010b).
(2) The Burton Ranch Specific Plan
site (Burton Ranch) is located south of
the Encina Management Unit of the
Reserve. The project was approved in
2006 (City of Lompoc 2012) and totals
149 ac (60 ha). Approximately 83 ac (34
ha) of Vandenberg monkeyflower
suitable habitat would be removed
(SAIC 2005a, p. 175). Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been observed at
this site, although the habitat contains
many species commonly associated
with Vandenberg monkeyflower (SAIC
2005a, p. 174), and veldt grass is present
within the project site. Ground
disturbance expected as a result of this
approved project would remove native
vegetation and may create open areas
where veldt grass could invade (see
Factor A—Invasive Nonnnative Species
below).
A 100-ft (30-m) buffer at the northern
boundary of the project site and 8 ac (3
ha) of onsite open space were proposed
as part of the Burton Ranch project
(SAIC 2005a). Preserving chaparral may
reduce the potential of nonnative plants
to invade the intact Burton Mesa
chaparral in the Reserve directly to the
north of this project site. Additionally,
the project proponent completed a
conservation agreement with the Land
Trust for Santa Barbara County (Land
Trust) to mitigate for the removal of
native vegetation (Feeney in litt. 2012).
The conservation area is known as the
Burton Ranch Chaparral Preserve and
encompasses 95 ac (38 ha) of Burton
Mesa chaparral near Vandenberg
Village.
(3) Allan Hancock College proposed
to develop a public safety complex
adjacent to their existing facilities and
south of the Davis Creek corridor (Allan
Hancock College 2009, p. 28). The
project site would remove
approximately 59 ac (16 ha) of Burton
Mesa chaparral (Allan Hancock College
2009, pp. 134–135). Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been observed
within this project site, although a few
individuals were observed in 2009
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within the chaparral vegetation (Allan
Hancock College 2009, p. 113).
Therefore, ground disturbance would
remove suitable Burton Mesa chaparral
and may create open areas for veldt
grass to invade. As part of this project,
Allan Hancock College proposed to
preserve approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of
Burton Mesa chaparral near the Davis
Creek drainage that is contiguous with
the northern portion of the project site
(Allan Hancock College 2009, pp. 9,
135). Preserving chaparral in this area
may reduce the potential of nonnative
plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa
chaparral in the Reserve to the north of
this project site.
In summary, the majority of
development on Vandenberg AFB and
the residential communities of
Vandenberg Village, Mission Hills, and
Mesa Oaks, and the existing
infrastructure at La Purisima Mission
SHP have existed for decades. Most of
Burton Mesa is either State or Federal
land on which future development is
unlikely; therefore, most of the
remaining habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower would not be directly
impacted by future development.
However, three recent private
developments on the periphery of the
State or Federal land either have
resulted in or will result in the direct
loss of Burton Mesa chaparral.
Development within or adjacent to
suitable chaparral habitat increases the
likelihood of introducing invasive,
nonnative species to spread, which is
the most significant threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower (see Factor
A—Invasive, Nonnative Plants).
Available conservation measures to
minimize the threat of development are
discussed below, see Factor A—
Conservation Measures Undertaken.
Utility and Pipeline Maintenance
Utility and pipeline structures occur
within the Reserve on Burton Mesa.
These existing facilities or structures at
times require maintenance to ensure
proper operation. As a result, vehicles
and foot traffic could occur at or
adjacent to these structures and
potentially result in trampling of habitat
and other soil surface disturbance,
which in turn could result in ground
disturbance that removes Burton Mesa
chaparral and creates open areas in the
vegetation that act as pathways for
nonnative plants to expand or invade.
Plains Exploration and Production
Company (PXP) owns an oil processing
plant surrounded by the La Purisima
Management Unit of the Reserve (see
Land Ownership section above), and
requires access to their operation across
Reserve lands north of the La Purisima
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and Santa Lucia Management Units.
Eighteen separate easements and 5
connector easements are used to
maintain, repair, replace, and install
roads and access power lines, utility
lines, and pipelines (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
p. 12). These easements are generally 50
ft (15 m) wide and vary in length.
Additionally, PXP operates a triplet
pipeline that is located within the 100ft- (30-m-) wide fuel break between the
Vandenberg AFB boundary and the
western edge of the Reserve. Plains
Exploration & Production routinely
conducts maintenance of this pipeline
that includes excavating trenches
alongside the pipeline to perform the
necessary inspections and repairs. The
Oak Canyon occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower on Vandenberg AFB is
partially located within the pipeline’s
footprint. No monkeyflower individuals
have been observed in Oak Canyon
recently, and veldt grass has filled
almost every opening in the scrub in
Oak Canyon (Rutherford in litt. 2012)
(see Factor A—Invasive, Nonnative
Species). The Santa Lucia Canyon
occurrence is adjacent to, but not within
the pipeline corridor. Actions within
PXP’s pipeline footprint may result in
ground disturbances that create
openings for nonnative plants to invade
and outcompete native vegetation.
However, there is no indication that
maintenance of PXP’s pipeline in this
area has affected Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat.
The Reserve contains a limited
number of existing structures, most of
which are remnants of previous land
uses. Local land use agencies and public
works agencies retain utilities and
pipelines, and easements for access;
routine maintenance of the utilities is
conducted as needed. The Vandenberg
Village Community Services District
(VVCSD) has several structures
(including water tanks, a water
processing plant, wells, and water lines
and sewer lines) located within the
Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower at Volans Avenue is
adjacent to a sewer line easement held
by the VVCSD. A portion of the
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrence
located at Davis Creek is within a water
line easement, also held by the VVCSD.
There is no indication that maintenance
of VVCSD infrastructure has affected
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat
at either of these locations.
The VVCSD filed a request with the
State Lands Commission in May 2010 to
acquire 27 ac (11 ha) of land within the
Reserve east of their existing water tanks
for the construction of a replacement
water well (VVCSD 2010). The 27–ac
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(11–ha) site is within the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve and is currently
leased to the CDFW. Approximately 180
Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals
(see the Davis Creek occurrence
discussion under the Occurrences
Located on Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve section above) were observed in
2010 within the 27–ac (11–ha) parcel of
land where the VVCSD proposes to
construct wells in the future. Therefore,
if development occurs at this parcel,
habitat associated with approximately
25 percent of the known individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower that were
observed in 2010 within the Davis Creek
occurrence could be impacted (Meyer in
litt. 2010a) (see Factor E—Utility and
Pipeline Maintenance section below).
Additionally, removing vegetation
would create open space for nonnative
plants to invade this area.
In summary, there is no indication
that ongoing maintenance activities of
existing pipelines and utilities have
directly impacted Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat. However, utility
maintenance actions could result in
ground disturbance that removes Burton
Mesa chaparral, creating open areas in
the vegetation that act as pathways for
nonnative plants to invade.
Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur
throughout Burton Mesa and represent
the greatest threat to the remaining
individuals of, and suitable habitat for,
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Invasive,
nonnative plants occur across
Vandenberg monkeyflower’s range,
including within and adjacent to
occupied habitat at all nine extant
locations, as well as at the potentially
extirpated location (Lower Santa Lucia
Canyon). The presence of invasive,
nonnative plants can alter all
components of an ecosystem, from
directly altering habitat and displacing
individuals (the latter of which is
described under Factor E), to negatively
affecting the abundance and diversity of
small mammals and insects that
disperse seeds or pollinate the native
vegetation.
Disturbance is one of the primary
factors that promote invasion of
nonnative species (Rejmanek 1996;
D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992; Hobbs
and Huenneke 1992; Brooks et al. 2004;
Keeley et al. 2005). Broad disturbances
such as urban development, and
disturbances along corridors, such as
roadsides and trails, provide
opportunities for nonnative plants to
invade and gain a foothold in Burton
Mesa (Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23).
The primary fragmenting (disturbance)
event can be the construction of a road,
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with or without associated housing
development; later the habitat remnants
are subdivided by additional
development, or trails and smaller
disturbances that occur within the
habitat remnants (Soule et al. 1992, p.
43). It is well known that roadside edges
tend to be highly invaded habitats
(Gelbard and Belnap 2003, p. 422).
Paved roads tend to have larger verges
and more adjacent invasive plants
present than unpaved roads because of
the ongoing maintenance and
improvements of paved roads (Gelbard
and Belnap 2003, pp. 422–430).
Additionally, wheeled vehicles
effectively disperse seed and seedbearing plant parts along travel routes
and trails, helping to spread invasive,
nonnative plants (Gelbard and Belnap
2003; Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225).
Several native mammals also disperse
seeds of nonnative plants (D’Antonio
1990, pp. 697–698), including deer
(Odocoileus spp.) and rabbits
(Sylvilagus spp.), which effectively
disperse the seeds in feces (Odion et al.
1992, pp. 1, 27). Furthermore, the
prevailing onshore winds contribute to
the rapid spread of nonnative plants
across Burton Mesa.
The expansion of nonnative plants
represents a substantial problem as it
displaces native vegetation on Burton
Mesa. Keil and Holland (1998, p. 27)
documented 220 nonnative plant
species on Vandenberg AFB, the
majority of which are native to the
Mediterranean region and a smaller
number native to Eurasia, South
America, Australia, South Africa, or
other regions. A total of 124 nonnative
plant species were observed on the
Reserve, 17 of which are recognized as
high concern because of their severe
ecological impacts on native ecosystems
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 181). Ferren et al.
(1984, p. 75) documented 90 species of
nonnative plants in La Purisima Mission
SHP, comprising approximately 25
percent of the total flora at the park. The
list of species observed by Ferren et al.
(1984) is not comprehensive but
includes nearly all species occurring on
unplowed uplands of Burton Mesa
where Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat occurs (Hickson 1987, p. 21).
Several invasive plant species that are
present within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and of particular
concern with regard to altering habitat
of Vandenberg monkeyflower on Burton
Mesa include veldt grass, pampas grass,
bromes, Sahara mustard, Centaurea
solstitialis (star thistle), iceplant,
Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian thistle),
and Cirsium vulgare (bull thistle). The
first five of these species have a ranking
of ‘‘A’’ by the California Invasive Plants
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Council (Cal-IPC), denoting the highest
level of impact on native habitats;
iceplant, Italian thistle, and bull thistle
have a ranking of ‘‘B’’, denoting a
moderate level of impact on native
habitats (Cal-IPC 2012).
The following paragraphs include a
brief discussion of four prolific invasive,
nonnative plants (veldt grass, iceplant,
Sahara mustard, and pampas grass) that
are having the greatest impact to
Vandenberg monkeyflower occupied
and suitable habitat across its range. We
describe general biological impacts
these four invasive plants have on
native vegetation, including known
impacts to Burton Mesa chaparral, and
thus, suitable habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower. We then discuss the
specific presence and known impacts of
these invasive plants on Burton Mesa
chaparral at each of the nine extant
Vandenberg monkeyflower locations
and one potentially extirpated location.
We describe the biological impacts
using the best available information,
which includes personal observations of
many scientists who are local experts
concerning Burton Mesa or Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat. Available
conservation measures to minimize the
threat of invasive, nonnative plants are
discussed below under Factor A—
Conservation Measures Undertaken.
(1) Veldt Grass. Veldt grass may be the
most pervasive of the nonnative species
in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
because it can produce an abundance of
seeds year-round, and grows under a
wide variety of light, temperature,
moisture, and substrate conditions (Keil
and Holland 1998, p. 23; The Nature
Conservancy (TNC) 2005, pp. 6–7).
Additionally, it is extremely difficult to
eradicate once established. Note that,
while several species of veldt grass
occur in this region, the most prevalent,
and the one we are focusing on in this
rule, is South African perennial veldt
grass. As a sprawling perennial, veldt
grass substantially changes the plant
community composition in invaded
habitats, altering fire potential by
buildup of dense thatch during the
summer months (see Factor A—
Anthropogenic Fire), and increasing the
rate of organic matter accumulation
(TNC 2005, p. 6; Cal-IPC 2012). Veldt
grass tends to crowd out native species
and prevents the reestablishment of
native herbs and shrubs; larger shrubs
are not replaced after they die (Keil and
Holland 1998, p. 23; Bossard et al. 2000
pp. 164–170; Earth Tech et al. 1996, p.
314). Veldt grass also readily spreads
into roadsides and from there into
openings between shrubs (Bossard et al.
2000, p. 168). In the absence of veldt
grass, open areas that occur in native
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vegetative communities on the mesa
tend to be occupied by a variety of
native annual herbs and short-lived
perennials (Earth Tech et al. 1996, p.
314). These open areas may provide
habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Veldt grass is spreading rapidly across
Vandenberg AFB and the Burton Mesa
and represents a significant problem
(Gevirtz et at. 2007, p. 181). It was
established on Vandenberg AFB in the
late 1950s to stabilize sand dunes in the
Purisima Point area approximately 5 mi
(8 km) south of San Antonio Terrace
(Peters and Sciandrone 1964, pp. 98,
101); the San Antonio Terrace dune
sheet overlies the western edges of
Burton Mesa and is upwind of Burton
Mesa (Hunt 1993, p. 8). In a study of the
vegetation of San Antonio Terrace,
photos from 1979 and the early 1990s
were compared, noting that veldt grass
had expanded from a few localized
areas (generally around existing roads
and buildings) to become a dominant
component of the vegetation and had
expanded to new areas (Earth Tech et al.
1996). Veldt grass initially invades
roadway corridors or other disturbed
areas, and then spreads into the more
open herbaceous or unvegetated areas
between shrubs (Earth Tech et al. 1996,
p. 314). Grasses like veldt grass that are
prolific seeders can build up a large
seed bank in the soil, increasing their
capacity to respond to disturbances;
however, D’Antonio and Vitousek
(1992, p. 66) noted that veldt grass is
also a threat in the absence of habitat
disturbance because it can invade
undisturbed coastal habitats in
California. Sandy habitats appear to be
particularly susceptible to invasion in
California (TNC 2005, p. 6). Human
(1990, p. 34) identified veldt grass as the
most devastating of the nonnative
invaders on San Antonio Terrace (which
is upwind of Burton Mesa and thus
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat)
because it forms solid stands and
excludes native plant species.
Currently, veldt grass occurs in more
areas on Vandenberg AFB than where it
was initially introduced. On
Vandenberg AFB, veldt grass occurs
both within and adjacent to occupied
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat and
is expanding at Santa Lucia, Lake, and
Pine Canyons, and has become the
dominant vegetation cover in portions
of lower Oak Canyon. Additionally,
veldt grass is present and expanding at
certain locations on the Reserve,
including at the Volans Avenue,
Clubhouse Estates, and Davis Creek
occurrences. Veldt grass is also present
at La Purisima Mission SHP. See section
below entitled Review of Invasive,
Nonnative Species Present by
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Occurrence regarding the presence and
known impacts of veldt grass at each of
the Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences.
(2) Iceplant. Iceplant is a succulent,
mat-forming perennial (D’Antonio 1990,
p. 694). A single iceplant individual can
form dense, circular mats up to 33 ft (10
m) in diameter and approximately 20 in
(40 cm) thick (D’Antonio and Mahall
1991, p. 886). It overcrowds native
plants and has an exceptional ability to
spread to sandy soils along the coast
(Jacks et al. 1984, p. 12; Zedler and
Scheid 1988, p. 196).
The reproductive potential of iceplant
is very high (Schmalzer and Hinkle
1987, p. 18). It propagates by seed and
vegetatively; even small stem fragments
can regenerate into a new plant (Cal-IPC
2012). Iceplant is a successful invader
because seeds are dispersed before or
during the time of year when they are
most likely to germinate, which allows
little time for post-dispersal predation to
occur; and the seeds are dispersed by a
diversity of mammals (D’Antonio 1990,
p. 700). Additionally, Vivrette and
Muller (1977, pp. 315–317) showed that
the salt leached from iceplant
individuals was the limiting factor in
the growth and establishment of native
grassland species. Salt retained in aerial
parts of dried iceplant individuals is
transported into the soil through
leaching by fog in the summer and rain
in the fall (Vivrette and Muller 1977, pp.
311, 316; Kloot 1983, pp. 304–305). On
sandy soils, salt deposited in the
summer is washed through the soil and
replaced by the remaining lower levels
of salt leaching out of the plant with the
first rains in the fall (Vivrette and
Muller 1977, p. 316).
Iceplant is an invasive species of great
concern on Vandenberg AFB (Keil and
Holland 1998, p. 22). It was originally
planted on Base along roads and about
buildings to prevent wind erosion
(Human 1990, pp. 32, 42). By the mid1990s, iceplant occupied hundreds of
acres on the San Antonio Terrace,
having spread into adjacent habitats
from plantings along roadsides, the
Southern Pacific Railroad tracks, and
around missile testing facilities (Earth
Tech 1996, p. 264). It is especially
prevalent west of the main developed
area on Vandenberg AFB because there
is extensive iceplant in the adjacent
dune habitat and former chaparral
habitat, and because of extensive past
mechanical disturbance (i.e., land
disturbed by mechanical equipment)
within the chaparral west of the primary
developed area (Odion et al. 1992, p.
13).
Iceplant recruits abundantly within
openings in the chaparral canopy such
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as those created by burning or
mechanical disturbance (Odion et al.
1992, p. 1), and there is no area of
Burton Mesa chaparral on Base where
iceplant will not invade (Odion et al.
1992, p. 13). In one instance after a
prescribed burn, iceplant was
discovered in the burned plot after the
fire, which was unexpected because
succulent plants (such as iceplant) are
not known to have the capacity to
recover rapidly from fire (Jacks et al.
1984, pp. 11–12). Iceplant was not
known to occur in the burn plot prior
to fire; however, within 3 years of the
prescribed burn, iceplant was the
second most prevalent post-fire
perennial plant observed (Zedler and
Schied 1988, p. 198). Because iceplant
distribution is extensive on Vandenberg
AFB (Air Force 2011a) and is common
within most chaparral on the Base
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 13), little effort has
been made to map individuals of
iceplant that are mixed within many
habitats on the Base, including Burton
Mesa chaparral.
Iceplant has also been observed in the
Reserve (Junak 2011; Meyer 2012, pers.
comm.) and at La Purisima Mission SHP
(Gevirtz et al. 2005, Appendix 5),
although it is not as common as it is on
Vandenberg AFB. Please see the Review
of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present
by Occurrence section below regarding
the presence and known impacts of
iceplant at each of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrences.
(3) Sahara Mustard. Dense stands of
Sahara mustard have the potential to
dominate native ecosystems, especially
in dry sandy soils (County of Santa
Barbara Agricultural Commissioner’s
Office (Santa Barbara Ag. Comm.) 2012).
Sahara mustard is especially common in
areas with wind-blown sand deposits
and in disturbed sites, such as
roadsides. Additionally, it is invading
nonnative annual grassland and coastal
sage scrub on the coastal slope of
southern California and is wellestablished in all counties of southern
California (Cal-IPC 2012). In coastal
southern California, it locally dominates
nonnative grasslands in dry, open sites,
especially disturbed areas, and can
expand over larger areas replacing other
nonnative annuals during drought
conditions (Cal-IPC 2012). Its earlyseason growth and large size allow it to
monopolize early-season moisture,
expand its canopy, and set seed before
other plants have emerged (Cal-IPC
2012; Santa Barbara Ag. Comm. 2012;
Barrows et al. 2009).
Barrows et al. (2009, pp. 677–683)
conducted a study in the Coachella
Valley (Imperial County, California)
from 2002 to 2008, to determine
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whether native annual plants were
negatively affected by the presence of
Sahara mustard by comparing plots with
Sahara mustard to plots where Sahara
mustard had been manually removed.
Sahara mustard formed a canopy 1 to 3
ft (0.3 to 1.0 m) from the ground and
native annuals under the canopy were
often weakened by loss of sunlight,
resulting in natives that grew taller;
however, the increased plant height was
at the expense of producing branches,
flowers, and fruits (Barrows et al. 2009,
p. 683). Flower and seed production of
annuals growing under the Sahara
mustard canopy decreased 80 to 90
percent compared to annuals free from
mustard competition (Barrows et al.
2009, p. 683). Additionally, species
richness, density, and total percent
cover of natives were higher in the plots
where Sahara mustard was removed
(Barrows et al. 2009, p. 679). The
strongest effect was on the percent cover
of natives, with nearly double the native
annual plant cover on plots where
Sahara mustard had been manually
removed.
Sahara mustard was collected at three
locations on Vandenberg AFB in the late
1990s and is likely to be more common
(Keil in litt. 2013). One of these
collections was from Lake Canyon
(which is the location for one of the
nine extant Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences). A second collection of
Sahara mustard was located on North
Base, upwind of Burton Mesa and thus
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The
third collection was from near Point
Arguello on South Base and not near or
upwind of Burton Mesa.
More recently, Sahara mustard has
been observed on Department of Justice
lands at the Lompoc Penitentiary that is
near the southern terminus of Santa
Lucia Canyon Road and Oak Canyon,
and borders the southwestern corner of
the Vandenberg Management Unit of the
Reserve (Meyer in litt. 2012a; Lum in
litt. 2012c). It is spreading rapidly across
the Reserve, notably in the La Purisima,
Santa Lucia, Vandenberg, and Encina
Management Units (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
p. 241, Junak 2011; Meyer in litt. 2012a).
Specifically, Sahara mustard is known
to occur adjacent to the Clubhouse
Estates occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower (Meyer in litt. 2012a).
Additionally, a small-scale infestation
occurs by the eastern edge of La
Purisima Mission SHP (California State
Parks 2011, p. 4; Santa Barbara Ag.
Comm. 2012). See the section below
titled Review of Invasive, Nonnative
Species Present by Occurrence regarding
the presence and known impacts of
Sahara mustard at each of the
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
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(4) Pampas Grass. The invasion of
pampas grass has altered the landscape
of Burton Mesa because it has the ability
to convert shrubland into nonnative
perennial grassland and prevent native
plants from reestablishing (Permberton
1985, p. 4; Lambrinos 2000, pp. 224–
225). Once pampas grass is established,
it is extremely difficult to eradicate
(McClintock 1985, p. 5). Individual
plants already present in the landscape
may greatly accelerate the conversion of
native vegetation into pampas grassdominated grasslands (Lambrinos 2002,
p. 527). Therefore, the ability of pampas
grass to persist for long periods of time
poses a serious threat to the native
diversity of this ecosystem (Lambrinos
2000, p. 217). Large individuals can
produce billions of seeds over the
course of their reproductive lives
(Lambrinos 2000, p. 225), and because
the grass seeds are wind-dispersed (Keil
and Holland 1998, p. 23), pampas grass
is able to spread into adjacent
vegetation, particularly chaparral, in
which there are openings and bare soil
(Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, pp. 30–
31). Additionally, it creates a fire hazard
with excessive buildup of dry leaves,
leaf bases, and flowering stalks (Cal-IPC
2012) (see Factor A—Anthropogenic
Fire).
Lambrinos (2000, p. 225) studied the
effects of pampas grass invasion at
Vandenberg AFB. Plots with pampas
grass were compared to adjacent plots of
pristine maritime chaparral. The
pampas grass-invaded portions of the
plots were associated with adjacent,
relatively small-scale disturbances, such
as dirt roads, water runoff channels, and
a paved road. The only disturbance
within the plots was narrow trails used
by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)
that crossed both invaded and
noninvaded plots (Lambrinos 2000, pp.
219, 225). The cover of dead shrubs was
significantly greater in invaded plots,
indicating shrub cover was higher in the
invaded plots at the time of invasion.
Additionally, shrub recruitment into
stands of pampas grass was low, and
pampas grass individuals exhibited high
recruitment rates in both invaded and
pristine maritime chaparral stands
(Lambrinos 2000, p. 225).
Populations of pampas grass have
been well-established on Vandenberg
AFB since 1975 (Coulombe and Cooper
1976, pp. 93–94). It was introduced
along the railroad tracks (Odion et al.
1992, p. 14), and major populations
occur around the airfield extending
from the railroad tracks south along
both sides of the runway and in adjacent
areas (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, p.
30; Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23).
Nearly all mechanically disturbed areas
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on Base downwind of established
pampas grass are now invaded (Odion et
al. 1992, p. 14). From the ruderal
populations, pampas grass has also
expanded into the surrounding,
relatively undisturbed chaparral where
there are openings and bare soil
(Lambrinos 2000, p. 218; Schmalzer and
Hinkle 1987, pp. 30–31). Therefore, over
extended periods of time pampas grass
can reduce native plant diversity, even
in the absence of large-scale
disturbances (Lambrinos 2000, p. 227).
The most affected habitat is Burton
Mesa chaparral because the natural
integrity of the community was lost due
to previous disturbances (Keil and
Holland 1998, p. 23; Lambrinos 2002, p.
519). Thus, any activities that remove
native vegetation and leave bare soil
create an opportunity for pampas grass
invasion (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987,
pp. 30–31).
Pampas grass has also been observed
in the Reserve (Junak 2011) and at La
Purisima Mission SHP (Gevirtz et al.
2005, Appendix 5), although it is not as
widespread as it is on Vandenberg AFB.
See the section below titled Review of
Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by
Occurrence regarding the presence and
known impacts of pampas grass at each
of the Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences.
Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species
Present by Occurrence
In the paragraphs below we discuss
the presence of invasive plants that
occur within or adjacent to Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat at each of
the nine extant locations and one
potentially extirpated location. The
Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyon
locations are grouped based on the
information available.
(1) Vandenberg AFB—Oak Canyon.
Oak Canyon is a location where
Vandenberg monkeyflower was reported
as common in the 1980s (see Current
Locations—Occurrences Located on
Vandenberg AFB section for additional
site-specific information). In 2004, a 12ac (4.86-ha) fire burned the northeastfacing slope of lower Oak Canyon (Lum
in litt. 2012e); a detailed description of
the vegetation at this site prior to the
fire is not available. Since then,
however, veldt grass has filled almost
every opening in the scrub in Oak
Canyon and in 2012, it was the
dominant species in this area
(Rutherford in litt. 2012). Four
individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower were found in 2006
(VFWO 2013), and none were observed
in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012, p. 1;
Lum in litt. 2012b; Rutherford in litt.
2012).
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(2), (3), and (4) Vandenberg AFB—
Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyons.
Veldt grass occurs within and near each
of the occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower at Pine, Lake, and Santa
Lucia Canyons, and the area occupied
by veldt grass is expanding at each site
(SAIC 2012, p. 5; Air Force 2012).
Additionally, the Highway Incident
wildfire in 2009 (see Factor A—
Anthropogenic Fire) that burned in
upper Lake Canyon fostered expansion
of invasive, nonnative plants already
present in the area, such as veldt grass,
pampas grass, iceplant, and bull thistle
(Air Force 2009b, Appendix E).
(5) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve—
Volans Avenue. Veldt grass and iceplant
occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower
suitable habitat and near the known
occurrences at this location, and both
species are likely directly affecting the
availability of sandy openings at this
location (Meyer in litt. 2013). The last
time Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed at this location was in 2007
(Meyer in litt. 2007), although we still
consider this occurrence extant.
(6) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve—
Clubhouse Estates. As of the most recent
survey in 2009, the Clubhouse Estates
occurrence supported 350–400
Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals
(McGowen in litt. 2009). Since a portion
of the vegetation was cleared from this
project site in 2006 and later graded in
2007, veldt grass and Sahara mustard
have expanded within Vandenberg
monkeyflower suitable habitat and near
individual plants (Meyer in litt. 2010b)
(see also Current Locations—
Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve; and Factor A—
Development sections above). In
particular, veldt grass has moved into
the Clubhouse Estates location and is
expanding into undisturbed areas where
veldt grass did not previously occur
(Meyer in litt. 2010b). Prior to the 2006
ground disturbance, iceplant and
pampas grass were present on the
project site (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13–14).
Iceplant typically occurred in scattered
patches adjacent to areas disturbed by
roadways and existing infrastructure
(SAIC 2005b, pp. 13–14; LFR, Inc. 2006,
p. 23), and pampas grass occurred
throughout the project site, especially in
moister places adjacent to wetlands,
along both branches of Davis Creek that
run through the site, and along
roadways (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13–14; LFR,
Inc. 2006, p. 23). Following the ground
disturbance, veldt grass, pampas grass,
and iceplant continue to expand in the
undisturbed parcel that is designated as
open space as part of the development
project. It was previously controlled
around 2008, but the required 3 years of
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weeding (LFR, Inc 2006, pp. 48–50, 75
(Table 10)) have not occurred (Meyer in
litt. 2013).
(7) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve—
Davis Creek. Veldt grass and iceplant
have been observed within sandy
openings at the Davis Creek occurrence
of Vandenberg monkeyflower. The
CDFW observed veldt grass within the
southern portion of the area occupied by
Vandenberg monkeyflower in addition
to the area approximately 100 ft (30 m)
to the north of the plants (Meyer 2012,
pers. comm.). Additionally, patches of
iceplant were observed at the northern
portion of the Davis Creek occurrence
(Meyer 2012, pers. comm.).
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve—
Potentially Extirpated Occurrence at
Lower Santa Lucia Canyon. An
historical observation of Vandenberg
monkeyflower was made in 1985
(Hickson in litt. 2007). However, this
species has not been recently observed
at this location and is considered
potentially extirpated (see Figure 2 and
Table 1) because it has been
approximately 30 years since
individuals were observed (with little
survey effort between 1985 and 2011);
suitable habitat remains but it is
overcrowded with invasive, nonnative
plants. Currently, veldt grass is
dominant within the sandy openings in
the Burton Mesa chaparral, and herbs
commonly associated with Vandenberg
monkeyflower are absent (Meyer in litt.
2012c). Sahara mustard is expanding
into the Vandenberg Management Unit
at the southwestern corner of the
Reserve from the adjacent Lompoc
Penitentiary (Meyer in litt. 2012a).
(8) and (9) La Purisima Mission State
Historic Park—La Purisima Mission SHP
East and West. Veldt grass occurs at
both the western and eastern
occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower in the park. Specifically,
veldt grass is encroaching into intact
Burton Mesa chaparral and into open
sandy areas where Vandenberg
monkeyflower grows (Ballard 2006;
California State Parks 2011, p. 4).
Summary—Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur and
are expanding throughout the Burton
Mesa. More specifically, at least one of
the four most problematic invasive
plants occurs within or adjacent to
suitable habitat at each of the nine
extant occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower and at one potentially
extirpated location. Invasive plants have
demonstrated the ability to reduce the
diversity of native vegetation and
convert the native shrublands into
nonnative-dominated vegetation. In
some areas, particularly on Vandenberg
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AFB, veldt grass, iceplant, and pampas
grass when first introduced were only
minor components of the vegetation;
today, these nonnatives are dominant
components of the vegetation at the
locations where they were introduced,
and they have expanded to new areas.
The expansion of invasive, nonnative
plants is also prevalent on the Reserve
and at La Purisima Mission SHP. Native
shrub recruitment and growth of native
annuals into open areas is substantially
decreased where these invasive,
nonnative plants become established.
Thus, it is likely that invasive,
nonnative plants will become more
dominant where they already occur and
will continue to expand to new areas
due to the human activities on Burton
Mesa, the competitive fitness of these
invasive plants, the direction of the
prevailing wind, and the potential for
small- and large-scale disturbances (see
Factor A—Development and
Anthropogenic Fire), all of which could
create open areas that promote invasive,
nonnative species invasion and
expansion.
With regard to site-specific impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat,
veldt grass has been observed occurring
within suitable habitat at each of the
nine extant occurrences and at one
potentially extirpated location. Recent
observations of the habitat at all nine
extant occurrences indicate that veldt
grass is expanding and becoming
dominant in the sandy openings where
Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Because veldt grass will outcompete
native vegetation (including
overcrowding the sandy openings where
Vandenberg monkeyflower grows) and
is very difficult to eradicate once it is
established, the presence and expansion
of veldt grass within known occurrences
of Vandenberg monkeyflower is a
continuous threat because it reduces the
amount and quality of this species’
habitat. We also discussed above three
other invasive, nonnative species
(iceplant, Sahara mustard, and pampas
grass) that have substantial impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. These species, along with
numerous other nonnative plant
species, are present throughout Burton
Mesa and at all extant occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Similar to
veldt grass, the other invasive,
nonnative plants reduce the amount and
quality of habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower by outcompeting Burton
Mesa chaparral vegetation and
decreasing the amount and availability
of the sandy openings where
Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Nevertheless, no invasive plant is as
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prevalent and represents as much of a
threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat as veldt grass.
Anthropogenic Fire
The disturbance to maritime chaparral
that anthropogenic fires cause may
exceed the tolerance thresholds (ability
to tolerate naturally occurring fire
regimes and regenerate post-fire) of
many shrub species, resulting in an
open canopy, the demise of shrublands,
and persistence of nonnative plants
(Haidinger and Keeley 1993, pp. 143–
147). The common pattern after
chaparral fires is for native and
nonnative annual herbs to dominate for
the first year and then gradually decline
as the cover of shrub and subshrubs
increases (Zedler et al. 1983, p. 816). A
high cover of annual and perennial
herbs the first few years following the
fire decreases as the shrub canopy
closes, and there is little herbaceous
cover once the canopy closes, although
senescence (aging) in some shrubs may
allow the recruitment of opportunistic
herb or shrub species into gaps in the
chaparral (Hickson 1987, p. 5). Patterns
of post-fire vegetation vary depending
on chaparral habitat composition, fire
timing and intensity, and the physical
attributes and disturbance history of the
site (Davis et al. 1988, p. 169).
At historical fire frequencies,
chaparral species are generally resilient
to fire because they are well known to
regenerate from either resprouting of
perennial root crowns or germination of
seeds in the soil when heated or
exposed to smoke (obligate and sprouter
seeders) (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31).
However, increased fire frequencies in
chaparral have led to the loss of native
species that rely on seed regeneration
because there is insufficient time
between fires for shrub species to reach
reproductive age and replenish the soil
seed bank (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31).
Zedler et al. (1983, pp. 815–816) noted
that high fire frequency has devastating
impacts on shrub species that require a
period of recovery before being resilient
to further disturbance. On the other
hand, long-term absence of fire may lead
to a gradual transition from chaparral to
oak woodland (Van Dyke et al. 2001, p.
2), although this transition is also
dependent upon soil differences (Davis
et al. 1988, pp.187–188). Given
sufficient time without fire,
successional changes in shrublands may
result in a closed canopy that is capable
of excluding most nonnative species
(Keeley et al. 2005, p. 2110).
The long-term fire history for Santa
Barbara County indicates that large fires
(more than 49,400 ac (20,000 ha) and
typically driven by Santa Ana wind
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conditions) are part of the historical fire
regime in this region. The average time
between these large fires has remained
relatively consistent over the last 500
years, regardless of changes in land use,
from the Chumash who purposely set
fires along the coast (1425–1770), to
Spanish and American settlers (1770–
1900) who practiced fire suppression
but with little enforcement, to the more
recent period (1900–1985) of active fire
suppression (Mensing et al. 1999, pp.
301–304). The average interval between
these large fires ranges between 20 and
30 years and is strongly controlled by
precipitation patterns, with fires
generally occurring at the end of wet
phases and the beginning of droughts
(Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304). The range
between large fire events is 5 to 75 years
(Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304).
The historical fire regime on Burton
Mesa is unknown (Hickson 1987, p. 25),
but it is likely that naturally occurring
fires were less frequent as compared to
inland areas because the mesa is at low
elevation and the few lightning strikes
recorded in the region have been in the
distant mountains farther inland
(Hickson 1988, p. 20). Additionally,
because fog, cool temperatures, and cool
winds blowing off the ocean are typical,
the weather conditions conducive to
naturally occurring fires are rare on
Burton Mesa (Hickson 1988, p. 22;
Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 58). Therefore, the
natural fire interval for Burton Mesa,
similar to coastal chaparral
environments north of the Transverse
Ranges of southern California, may be
on the order of 100 years (Greenlee and
Langenheim 1990, pp. 242–250; Odion
and Tyler 2002, p. 9; Moritz et al. 1997,
p. 1258).
The present fire regime on Burton
Mesa is likely anthropogenic (Davis et
al. 1988, p. 185; Davis and Borchert
2006, p. 338), especially given the
historical densities of Native American
and European settlers in coastal areas
supporting maritime chaparral (Davis
and Borchert 2006, p. 328; Mensing et
al. 1999, p. 301) along with the related
infrastructure that currently exists.
Today, human-caused ignitions are
more frequent in maritime chaparral,
but wildfires are quickly suppressed or
extinguished at roads and fuel breaks
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 177; Davis and
Borchert 2006, p. 338). Additionally,
modern land use has fragmented the
Burton Mesa chaparral into isolated
patches (see Habitat section above), so
that while fires may be more frequent
now than in the past, fire size is
probably reduced and the average time
between fires on certain sites increased
(Hickson 1987, p. 20).
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Approximately 34 fires have occurred
within or adjacent to Burton Mesa
chaparral since 1940 on Vandenberg
AFB, east of the main developed area,
and from San Antonio Creek south to
the Santa Ynez River (Lum in litt.
2012f). Odion et al. 1992 (pp. 12–14)
stated that 44 fires have occurred within
or adjacent to chaparral on Burton Mesa;
however, this calculation also included
fires that occurred west of the main
developed area on Vandenberg AFB,
and, therefore, a larger area than what
the Air Force used. Some of the areas
burned more than once because the
perimeter of different fires overlapped
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 12; Lum in litt.
2012f). A portion of the fires were
prescribed burns (Lum in litt. 2012f;
Odion et al. 1992, pp. 12–14). In total,
at least 2,500 ac (1,012 ha) have burned
on Vandenberg AFB since 1957 (Odion
et al. 1992, p. 13). In recent years fires
have accidentally ignited on
Vandenberg AFB (see discussion of
Highway Incident in paragraph below).
Twenty-eight wildfires occurred on
the Reserve and adjacent La Purisima
Mission SHP in the period 1950–2003;
the most recent wildfire (Harris Grade
Fire) occurred in 2000 and was caused
by a power line that may have sparked
in high winds (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
60). This fire consumed 11,000 ac (4,451
ha) and was the largest fire in the area
since 1977 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60).
All of the fires on the Reserve and at La
Purisima Mission SHP since 1950 have
been a result of human activity (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 60). Based on an analysis
of the fire history, approximately 3,440
ac (1,392 ha) of the 5,186-ac (2,099-ha)
Reserve has not burned since 1938
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60), indicating an
absence of fire for at least 70 years on
66 percent of the Reserve’s property.
Similarly, the majority of vegetation at
La Purisima Mission SHP has not been
burned since before 1938, and most of
the native habitat in the park is also
more than 70 years old (Gevirtz et al.
2005, p. 77).
Although the fire interval in maritime
chaparral is an important factor in
determining species composition, on
Burton Mesa, and for Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat specifically, the
frequency of fire is secondary to the
primary threat, which is the post-fire
expansion of invasive, nonnative plants.
California’s chaparral habitats, like
Burton Mesa, are most vulnerable to
invasion by nonnative plants in the first
few years after fire because fires open
large areas of bare, nutrient-rich ground
and remove toxins from the soil,
chaparral recolonizes much more slowly
because of limited seed dispersal, and
some seedlings are poor competitors
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against nonnative annual species
(Keeley et al. 2003, pp. 1362–1363;
Alberts et al. 1993, p. 107; Davis and
Mooney 1985, p. 528).
Because sites favorable for invasion
by nonnative plants tend to be relatively
open areas where existing plant cover is
minimal (see Factor A—Invasive,
Nonnative Plants), and wildfires
occurring on Burton Mesa create such
open areas, fires within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat tend to increase
the expansion of invasive plants that are
already established. For example, an
accidental wildfire (Highway Incident)
occurred in September 2009 on
Vandenberg AFB when sparks from a
power line started a wildfire that burned
approximately 617 ac (250 ha) (Air
Force 2009b, p. 1) in upper Lake
Canyon. The southern boundary of this
wildfire burned to within 0.25 mi (0.4
km) of the known Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrence down-slope
in Lake Canyon. The Burned Area
Emergency Response (BAER) Plan noted
that invasive, nonnative species already
present in the area, including veldt
grass, pampas grass, iceplant, and bull
thistle, were confirmed or discovered in
the burn area within 2 weeks of the fire
(Air Force 2009b, Appendix E). Veldt
grass initially colonizes disturbed areas,
such as open areas created by wildfires,
and can become a dominant component
of the vegetation and expand to new
areas (see Factor A—Invasive,
Nonnative Plants). Another example in
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
includes a 12–ac (5–ha) fire that
occurred in Oak Canyon on Vandenberg
AFB in 2004; as a result, veldt grass is
the dominant vegetation on a hillside
sloping toward the canyon (Google
Earth 2012).
In addition to displacing native
vegetation, the presence of nonnative
plants (in particular nonnative grasses)
has increased the supply of readily
ignitable fuel and increased the seasonal
duration when fuels are susceptible to
ignition, both because of their earlier
seasonal drying compared to shrubs and
their high surface-to-volume ratio
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31).
Mediterranean grasses such as bromes
and Avena barbata (slender wild oat)
are particularly implicated since they
act as wicks, spreading fast-moving fire
into the canopies of larger shrub
vegetation (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31).
Thus, the abundance of nonnative
vegetation initiates a positive feedback
cycle based on increased biomass,
changes in the distribution of flammable
biomass, and increased flammability
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 29). Bromus
rubens (red brome) occurs on Burton
Mesa and is known to rapidly colonize
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disturbed sites with open canopies and
exposed bare ground (Brown and
Minnich 1986, pp. 414, 418; Bossard et
al. 2000, pp. 72–80). The prevalence of
veldt grass and pampas grass also
increases the fire potential on Burton
Mesa (see Factor A—Invasive,
Nonnative Plants section).
Fire Prevention and Suppression
Activities
The Air Force, CDFW, and California
State Parks have developed wildfire
prevention and suppression practices
not only to minimize the potential for
wildfire, but also to minimize the
impacts to the biological resources
during suppression activities. As part of
wildfire management practices,
landowners and agencies may create
fuel breaks (a permanent area of low
volume fuel) to limit the spread of
wildfire and to provide access for fire
suppression activities (Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 261). Merriam et al. (2006, pp.
525–526) observed that nonnative
species represented an increasing
proportion of total plant cover on fuel
breaks with fuel-break age, suggesting
that nonnative species can displace
native species on fuel breaks, and
become increasingly dominant over
time (for example, bromes were four of
the five most observed nonnative plants
on fuel breaks (Merriam et al. 2006, p.
519)). Additionally, wildland areas
adjacent to fuel breaks were more likely
to be invaded by nonnative species
when these areas had been subject to
recurrent fires (Merriam et al. 2006, p.
526).
Fire suppression activities that impact
suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat include bulldozed and hand-cut
fire lines and the application of fire
retardants. During the Highway Incident
wildfire, the Air Force cut fire lines that
resulted in a loss of Burton Mesa
chaparral (Air Force 2009b, p. 28).
Additionally, approximately 65,000
gallons (246,052 liters) of fire retardant
(which is known to act as a fertilizer
enhancing the growth of nonnative
grasses (Avery 2001, pp. 17–18)) were
spread over this site (Air Force 2009b,
p. 28). Therefore, by burning the
existing vegetation, fire creates open
areas where invasive, nonnative plants
can expand. Additionally, fire
prevention and suppression activities
(e.g., fire breaks and application of fire
retardant) can exacerbate the resulting
post-fire expansion of nonnative plants
by creating open fire lines and if fire
retardants add chemicals to the soil that
stimulate growth of nonnative
vegetation.
The Air Force, CDFW, and California
State Parks are studying the feasibility
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of a prescribed burning program to
restore fire to its natural role in the
environment and help restore the native
vegetation of Burton Mesa (California
State Parks 1991, p. 110; Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 258; California State Parks
2010, p. 3; Air Force 2012, p. 2).
However, many local communities are
concerned about the safety of
conducting prescribed burns on
wildlands when they occur within or
near urban areas, thus complicating the
ability of agencies to carry out such
burns.
In summary, because of the human
presence and infrastructure on the mesa,
the frequency of human-caused
wildfires is likely greater than the
frequency of the historical fires in the
past on Burton Mesa. An increased fire
frequency in Burton Mesa chaparral
would tend to favor the establishment of
nonnative vegetation in open areas at
the expense of native vegetation.
However, the primary threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat from fire is the post-fire
expansion of invasive, nonnative plants,
regardless of the fire frequency. Because
an abundance of nonnative plants
already occurs on the mesa and invasive
plants rapidly invade open areas, any
fire that occurs within or adjacent to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat is
likely to result in an increase of
invasive, nonnative vegetation.
Likewise, fire suppression activities that
include clearing vegetation in fuel
breaks or spreading retardant would
increase the likelihood of nonnative
species invading suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat, as well as
enhance the habitat conditions for
invasive species expansion.
Additionally, because the presence of
invasive, nonnative plants creates a
positive feedback mechanism, the
greater the percent cover of nonnative
vegetation, the more likely fires will
occur on Burton Mesa. Based on the
information presented in this section,
the current threat from anthropogenic
fire and associated fire suppression
activities to Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat described above is expected to
continue into the future. Available
conservation measures to minimize the
threat of anthropogenic wildfire are
discussed below (see Factor A—
Conservation Measures Undertaken).
Recreation and Other Human Activities
Recreational activities that occur
throughout Burton Mesa include
authorized uses such as hunting, hiking,
biking, wildlife observation, and
leashed-dog walking. Additionally, offroad vehicle (ORV) use is authorized on
Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2011b, p.
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6), but it is not permitted on the Reserve
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70) or La
Purisima Mission SHP (California State
Parks 1991, p. 109).
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
On the west end of Burton Mesa on
Vandenberg AFB, recreational activities
include OHV use and other casual-use
activities, such as hunting, picnicking,
and horseback riding. There is also an
existing 237–ac (96–ha) golf course.
Prior to 1974, Vandenberg AFB was
subject to uncontrolled use by ORVs. In
April 1974, efforts to establish a
program to control ORV use was
prompted by dune damage and the
complaints of recreational users, along
with consideration of soil, water, air,
noise, aesthetics, recreational users,
wildlife, vegetation, suitability of other
public lands, archaeological sites,
threatened and endangered species, and
the accessibility for users (Air Force
2011b, p. 6). Thus, Vandenberg AFB
environmental staff and the Base’s
motorcycle club designated an ORV area
(Air Force 2011b, p. 6). Currently, ORV
use occurs within a 600–ac (243–ha) site
that is west of the primary developed
area on Base and an additional site
referred to as Northstar that is located in
the northeast portion of the Base (Air
Force 2011b, p. 6), both of which are not
within Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat. The ORVs use existing trails
and roads, and are managed to prevent
damage to sensitive areas such as
wetlands and highly erodible soils (Air
Force 2011b, p. 6). Therefore, ORV use
on Vandenberg AFB is not within the
vicinity of Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences on the Base and is not a
direct threat to this species and its
habitat.
The west end of Burton Mesa on
Vandenberg AFB (west of the primary
developed area) is heavily disturbed by
existing trails and service roads, which
may be used by recreationists. Although
vehicles using these roads and trails
(including wheeled vehicles for
recreational activities) likely contribute
to the spread of invasive, nonnative
plant species on Burton Mesa (see
Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above), no information is available to
assess the extent and degree to which
this may be occurring on Vandenberg
AFB. Moreover, the best available
information does not indicate that these
recreational activities on the west end of
Burton Mesa on Base are a direct threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat.
To the east of the developed area
where higher-quality Burton Mesa
chaparral still remains and where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs on
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Base, recreational activities that may
impact the habitat of this species
include hunting and picnicking.
Hunting occurs over much of the Base
and is subject to restrictions at any time
based on human safety and security
concerns, as well as wildlife
management goals (Air Force 2011b, p.
7). Lake Canyon Lakes picnic area is
within a few hundred feet of
Vandenberg monkeyflower plants that
are located in lower Lake Canyon, but
the picnic facilities are located on
concrete or asphalt and thus not in
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Overall, the best available information
does not indicate that recreational
activities on Base, including hunting
and picnicking, are directly impacting
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its
habitat. However, these activities pose
an indirect threat to the habitat quality
because they contribute to the spread of
nonnative plants within suitable habitat.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
There are no formal recreational or
public facilities currently within the
Reserve, including no designated
parking or restroom facilities (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 69). Authorized uses include
hiking, wildlife observation, and
leashed-dog walking. Wheeled
recreational activities such as OHV use
and bicycles are not allowed in the
Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). The
management plan for the Reserve
identifies approximately 28 mi (45 km)
of trails (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 71). The
existing trails are a combination of oil
and utility service roads and an
informal network of pathways from the
surrounding residential areas (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 69). Impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat from authorized
recreational uses are likely negligible
because visitors walk into the Reserve
and the CDFW has posted signs at the
most highly used access points to direct
recreational users to low-impact trails so
as to reduce disturbances to the native
vegetation.
The Volans Avenue occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower is located
adjacent to Vandenberg Village and a
VVCSD pipeline easement that is used
by local residents for hiking, jogging,
dog walking, and other casual
recreational activities. Running events
have previously occurred in this area of
the Reserve, and the running route was
likely in close vicinity to the Volans
Avenue occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower (Ballard in litt. 2012).
Vandenberg monkeyflower was last
observed in 2007 at this location (Meyer
in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007),
although habitat is still present. In the
other years from 2004 to 2006, and in
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2009, no plants were found (Meyer in
litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007; Meyer in
litt. 2009a).
It is unknown whether disturbance
created by casual human use has played
a role in the absence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower’s aboveground
expression at this location since 2007.
The best available information indicates
that recreational activities involving
casual human use on the Reserve are
having minimal to no direct effect on
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on
Burton Mesa. However, veldt grass,
which produces an abundance of seeds
and tends to crowd out native species
and prevent their reestablishment, is
likely reducing the amount of available
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at
this location (see the specific Volans
Avenue discussion above under the
Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species
Present by Occurrence section).
Additionally, because Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat is fragmented by
recreational trails, the introduction of
additional invasive, nonnative plants
into this area is likely because spreading
of nonnative vegetation is known to
occur through visitors’ shoes (Gevirtz et
al. 2005, p. 225). Therefore, recreational
activities may indirectly affect this
species by spreading invasive,
nonnative plants into the habitat (i.e.,
sandy openings) where Vandenberg
monkeyflower grows.
Unauthorized ORV use has been
reported on the western portions of the
Reserve (Santa Lucia Management Unit)
from adjacent lands on Vandenberg
AFB. It is likely that the trespass is
originating from the general public
(nonmilitary) because public roadways
(such as Santa Lucia Canyon Road)
cross Vandenberg AFB lands on this
portion of the Base and the Air Force
controls the use of ORVs by military
staff on the Base. As a result of
unauthorized use on the Reserve, CDFW
installed a gate in 2009 to control access
along Santa Lucia Canyon Road (Meyer
in litt 2009b). Unauthorized ORV
activity has also been reported at
another location of the Reserve that
supports Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences and suitable habitat (i.e.,
east of, and adjacent to, the Clubhouse
Estates project site) (Meyer in litt
2010c). Additionally, bicycles are
prohibited in Burton Mesa (14
California Code of Regulations (CCR)
630 (b)(22)(B)). However, unauthorized
mountain biking has been observed in
the Reserve within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat (Meyer in litt.
2013). The available information does
not indicate the extent and degree to
which ORV and mountain biking may
be directly impacting Vandenberg
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monkeyflower habitat on the Reserve.
However, wheeled recreational
activities likely contribute to the spread
of invasive, nonnative plant species
within the Reserve along the travel
routes, some of which occur within
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
The Santa Barbara County Sheriff and
Fire Departments maintain facilities on
a county-owned inholding within the
Reserve. They have been leasing an
adjacent 3–ac (1.2–ha) parcel from the
State Lands Commission (SLC) for the
last 15 years to maintain their
equestrian training facility, and the use
of horses has expanded onto the
Reserve. The lease has since expired,
and the SLC is evaluating whether to
renew the lease or modify its terms
(Meyer in litt. 2012b). The Santa Barbara
County Sheriff Department desires to
keep horses in the stalls behind the
facility; however, horse use is not
allowed on Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve (14 CCR Section 630(b)(22(B)),
and CDFW wants to keep the area of
impact to a few acres near the stalls
(Meyer in litt. 2012b). Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrences and suitable
habitat do not occur near this facility
and, therefore, no direct impacts to the
habitat would occur.
The Lompoc Valley Flyers Club
(Flyers Club) operated a dirt take-off and
landing strip for model airplanes, a race
track for model cars, and several picnic
tables in the Vandenberg Management
Unit of the Reserve (just south of
California State Highway 1) from 1988
to 2000 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The
Flyers Club routinely graded the landing
strip and access road; this surface scar
is still evident in aerial photographs and
erosion is a continuing problem at this
site (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The
activities occurred in Burton Mesa
chaparral but not near known
occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. However, these activities
have reduced suitable habitat for
Vandenberg monkeyflower through
removal and degradation of Burton
Mesa chaparral and creation of open
areas that allow nonnative plants to
establish.
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
La Purisima Mission SHP contains
roads and trails authorized for use by
local residents for hiking, dog walking,
and horseback riding, and employs park
rangers and staff to maintain the
grounds and conduct patrols. Twelve
miles (19 km) of riding and hiking trails
wind through the park, including 3.7 mi
(6 km) of historical trails near the
mission and 8.8 mi (14 km) in the
surrounding hills (California State Parks
1991, pp. 9, 107). Bicycles are permitted
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on approximately 5 mi (8 km) of these
trails (which are also designated fire
roads), and the remainder, with a few
exceptions, are open to horses
(California State Parks 1991, pp. 9, 107).
Vehicle movement and pedestrian and
equestrian use do not directly impact
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La
Purisima Mission SHP because the
roads and trails do not overlap where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs.
However, indirect impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat may
occur due to nonnative plant invasions
introduced through visitors’ shoes,
horse hoofs, vehicle tires, and tractor
treads (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225). The
best available information indicates that
recreational activities involving casual
human use at La Purisima Mission SHP
are having minimal to no direct effect
on Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
on Burton Mesa.
Summary—Recreation and Other
Human Activities
Off-road vehicle use and other casual
recreational activities may contribute to
soil disturbance and increase the
potential for invasive, nonnative plants
to be introduced and further spread
across Burton Mesa, including into
locations where Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its suitable habitat
occurs. At this time, the best available
information does not indicate that
recreational activities pose a substantial
direct threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat, although these
activities would indirectly affect the
habitat by contributing to the spread of
invasive, nonnative plants within the
habitat and reducing the habitat quality.
Available conservation measures to
minimize the threat of recreation are
discussed below under Factor A—
Conservation Measures Undertaken.
Climate Change
Our analyses under the Act include
consideration of ongoing and projected
changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’
and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). The term ‘‘climate’’
refers to the mean and variability of
different types of weather conditions
over time, with 30 years being a typical
period for such measurements, although
shorter or longer periods also may be
used (IPCC 2007a, p. 78). The term
‘‘climate change’’ thus refers to a change
in the mean or variability of one or more
measures of climate (for example,
temperature or precipitation) that
persists for an extended period,
typically decades or longer, whether the
change is due to natural variability,
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human activity, or both (IPCC 2007a, p.
78).
Scientific measurements spanning
several decades demonstrate that
changes in climate are occurring, and
that the rate of change has increased
since the 1950s. Examples include
warming of the global climate system,
and substantial increases in
precipitation in some regions of the
world and decreases in others (For these
and other examples, see IPCC 2007a, p.
30; and Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 35–54,
82–85). Results of scientific analyses
presented by the IPCC show that most
of the observed increase in global
average temperature since the mid-20th
century cannot be explained by natural
variability in climate, and is ‘‘very
likely’’ (defined by the IPCC as 90
percent or higher probability) due to the
observed increase in greenhouse gas
(GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere
as a result of human activities,
particularly carbon dioxide emissions
from use of fossil fuels (IPCC 2007a, pp.
5–6 and figures SPM.3 and SPM.4;
Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 21–35). Further
confirmation of the role of GHGs comes
from analyses by Huber and Knutti
(2011, p. 4), who concluded that it is
extremely likely that approximately 75
percent of global warming since 1950
has been caused by human activities.
Scientists use a variety of climate
models, which include consideration of
natural processes and variability, as
well as various scenarios of potential
levels and timing of GHG emissions, to
evaluate the causes of changes already
observed and to project future changes
in temperature and other climate
conditions (for example, Meehl et al.
2007, entire; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp.
11555, 15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527,
529). All combinations of models and
emissions scenarios yield very similar
projections of increases in the most
common measure of climate change,
average global surface temperature
(commonly known as global warming),
until about 2030. Although projections
of the magnitude and rate of warming
differ after about 2030, the overall
trajectory of all the projections is one of
increased global warming through the
end of this century, even for the
projections based on scenarios that
assume that GHG emissions will
stabilize or decline. Thus, there is strong
scientific support for projections that
warming will continue through the 21st
century, and that the magnitude and
rate of change will be influenced
substantially by the extent of GHG
emissions (IPCC 2007a, pp. 44–45;
Meehl et al. 2007, pp. 760–764, 797–
811; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555–
15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529).
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(See IPCC 2007b, p. 8, for a summary of
other global projections of climaterelated changes, such as frequency of
heat waves and changes in
precipitation. Also see IPCC 2011
(entire) for a summary of observations
and projections of extreme climate
events.)
Various changes in climate may have
direct or indirect effects on species.
These effects may be positive, neutral,
or negative, and they may change over
time, depending on the species and
other relevant considerations, such as
interactions of climate with other
variables (for example, habitat
fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14,
18–19). Identifying likely effects often
involves aspects of climate change
vulnerability analysis. Vulnerability
refers to the degree to which a species
(or system) is susceptible to, and unable
to cope with, adverse effects of climate
change, including climate variability
and extremes. Vulnerability is a
function of the type, magnitude, and
rate of climate change and variation to
which a species is exposed, its
sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity
(IPCC 2007a, p. 89; see also Glick et al.
2011, pp. 19–22). No single method for
conducting such analyses applies to all
situations (Glick et al. 2011, p. 3). We
use our expert judgment and
appropriate analytical approaches to
weigh relevant information, including
uncertainty, in our consideration of
various aspects of climate change.
As is the case with all stressors that
we assess, even if we conclude that a
species is currently affected or is likely
to be affected in a negative way by one
or more climate-related impacts, it does
not necessarily follow that the species
meets the definition of an ‘‘endangered
species’’ or a ‘‘threatened species’’
under the Act. If a species is listed as
endangered or threatened, knowledge
regarding the vulnerability of the
species to, and known or anticipated
impacts from, climate-associated
changes in environmental conditions
can be used to help devise appropriate
strategies for its recovery.
Global climate projections are
informative and, in some cases, the only
or the best scientific information
available for us to use. However,
projected changes in climate and related
impacts can vary substantially across
and within different regions of the
world (for example, IPCC 2007a, pp. 8–
12). Therefore, we use ‘‘downscaled’’
climate projections when they are
available and have been developed
through appropriate scientific
procedures, because such projections
provide higher resolution information
that is more relevant to spatial scales
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used for analyses of a given species (see
Glick et al. 2011, pp. 58–61, for a
discussion of downscaling). With regard
to our analysis for Vandenberg
monkeyflower, downscaled climate
projections are available.
Within central-western California
(i.e., counties along the California coast
from the San Francisco Bay area south
to Santa Barbara County), regional
climate models project a mean annual
temperature increase of 1.6 to 1.9
degrees Celsius (°C) (2.9–3.4 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F)) and a mean diurnal
temperature range increase of 0.1 to 0.2
°C (0.2–0.4 °F) by 2070 (Point Reyes
Bird Observatory (PRBO) Conservation
Science 2011, p. 35). The projected
impacts of climate change are warmer
winter temperatures, earlier warming in
the spring, and increased summer
temperatures (PRBO Conservation
Science 2011, p. 35). Additionally,
regional climate models project a
decrease in mean annual rainfall of 2.4
to 7.4 in (6.1 to 18.8 cm) (PRBO
Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). The
large range of possible precipitation
change (¥11 percent to ¥32 percent) is
due to different model projections and
sensitivity. This sensitivity indicates
substantial uncertainty in precipitation
projections (PRBO Conservation Science
2011, p. 35). Other scientific sources
(Snyder et al. 2004, pp. 594–595) project
similar temperature increases and
precipitation decreases along the central
California coast.
Of the three major vegetation types
within central-western California,
decreases in cover are projected for
chaparral-coastal scrub habitat (¥19 to
¥43 percent) and blue oak woodlandfoothill pine habitat (¥44 to ¥55
percent), and an increase in cover
projected for grassland habitat (85 to
140 percent) to 2070 (PRBO
Conservation Science 2011, p. 38).
Lenihan et al. (2008) also projects
decreases in cover for conifer forests
and shrublands, and increases in cover
for grasslands in central-western
California by the 2070–2099 period.
Additionally, changes in vegetation
communities could also be hastened by
more and larger wildfires, as well as
effective wildfire suppression (PRBO
Conservation Science 2011, pp. 37–38)
(see Factor A—Anthropogenic Fire
section).
To estimate what changes in rainfall
and temperature, if any, would occur in
the Burton Mesa area over the next 50
years, we used both local weather data
and an available projection tool called
ClimateWizard (2012). Temperature and
precipitation data have been recorded in
the City of Lompoc, approximately 4 mi
(6.4 km) to the south of Burton Mesa
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Ecological Reserve. Between 1950 and
2006, the average annual temperature
was approximately 58 °F (14 °C); the
average annual precipitation was
approximately 15 in (38 cm) (Western
Regional Climate Center 2012). We then
used ClimateWizard (2012) to project
future climate conditions and compare
to baseline values (the latter of which is
defined as the average temperature or
precipitation between 1961 and 1990
(ClimateWizard 2012)). ClimateWizard
(2012) projects that rainfall would
decrease an average of 8 to 12 percent
from baseline and temperature would
rise approximately 2.5 °F (1.4 °C) by the
2050s. A comparison between the
Burton Mesa area and the eastern
portion of Santa Barbara County (for
example, 30 mi (48 km) east of the
Burton Mesa area, which is projected to
rise approximately 5 °F (2.8 °C)),
indicates that the change in temperature
is expected to be less in the Burton
Mesa area. This is likely due to the
moderating influence of ocean
temperatures in coastal areas.
In a changing climate, conditions
could change in a way that would allow
both native and nonnative plants to
invade the habitat where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs. A growing body
of literature discusses the specific
mechanisms by which climate change
could affect the abundance, distribution,
and long-term viability of plant species,
as well as current habitat configuration
over time, including (but not limited to):
Root et al. (2003), Parmesan and Yohe
(2003), and Visser and Both (2005).
While studies on response to climate
change have not been conducted for
Vandenberg monkeyflower, responses
may be similar to other plant species
with a similar life history. Some of the
responses by plants to climate change
presented by Root et al. (2003),
Parmesan and Yohe (2003), Visser and
Both (2005), and others include the
following:
(1) Drier conditions may result in less
suitable habitat, or a lower germination
success and smaller population sizes.
(2) Higher temperatures may inhibit
germination, dry out soil, or affect
pollinator services.
(3) The timing of pollinator life cycles
may become out-of-sync with timing of
flowering.
(4) A shift in the timing and nature of
annual precipitation may favor
expansion in abundance and
distribution of nonnative species.
(5) Drier conditions may result in
increased fire frequency, making the
ecosystems in which a species currently
grows more vulnerable to threats of
nonnative plant invasion.
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We recognize that climate change is
an important issue with potential
impacts to species and their habitats,
including Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Regional climate projections indicate
that a warming and drying trend is
likely in central-western California,
which would likely make habitat less
favorable for Vandenberg
monkeyflower. However, as stated
above, these warming and drying effects
may be moderated by the marine
influence. Therefore, climate change
may not affect Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat as quickly
or as extensively as may be projected.
We will continue to seek additional
information concerning how climate
change may affect the Burton Mesa area
(see Information Received section
above).
Conservation Measures Undertaken
The Air Force has an approved
Integrated Natural Resources
Management Plan (INRMP) on
Vandenberg AFB, and the CDFW and
California State Parks have established
natural resources management plans for
the Reserve and La Purisima Mission
SHP, respectively. Herein, we discuss
specific conservation measures as they
apply to each threat described above
(see Factor A—Development, Utility
Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities, Invasive, Nonnative Plants,
Anthropogenic Fire, and Recreation
sections above); however, not all
landowners implement conservation
measures that address each threat.
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
The Air Force developed an INRMP in
2011 (Air Force 2011c) pursuant to the
Sikes Act Improvement Act of 1997
(Sikes Act). The Sikes Act requires the
Department of Defense to develop and
implement INRMPs for military
installations in the United States.
INRMPs direct the management and use
of the lands on a military installation
and are prepared in cooperation with
the Service and State fish and wildlife
agencies to ensure proper consideration
of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs. This
Vandenberg AFB INRMP was prepared
to provide strategic direction to
ecosystem and natural resources
management on Base. The long-term
goal of the INRMP is to integrate all
management activities in a manner that
sustains, promotes, and restores the
health and integrity of ecosystems using
an adaptive management approach. The
INRMP was designed to: (1) Summarize
existing management plans and natural
resources literature pertaining to
Vandenberg AFB; (2) identify and
analyze management goals in existing
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plans; (3) integrate the management
goals and objectives of individual plans;
(4) support Base compliance with
applicable regulatory requirements; (5)
support the integration of natural
resource stewardship with the Air Force
mission; and (6) provide direction for
monitoring strategies. The INRMP
includes a chapter that identifies stepdown goals for the management of
threatened and endangered species on
Base; however, since Vandenberg
monkeyflower was not a listed species
at that time, specific goals for it were
not included. In 2012, the Air Force
approved an addendum that addresses
specific goals for Vandenberg
monkeyflower (Air Force 2012). The
INRMP and addendum provide for
measures that would conserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower, as follows:
(1) Development. The Air Force is not
likely to construct new launch facilities
within suitable habitat near humanpopulated areas, and the future siting of
community facilities is expected to
occur in a manner that capitalizes on
existing infrastructure and circulation
systems (Air Force 2009a, p. 32). Thus,
no specific conservation measures have
been proposed to minimize the threat of
development to Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat on Base.
(2) Utility Maintenance and
Miscellaneous Activities. Construction
of new facilities is not likely to occur
within Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat; however, existing utilities will
require periodic maintenance. No
specific conservation measures were
proposed in the addendum to the
INRMP (Air Force 2012). The main
objective is to avoid any impacts to
habitat, when possible, by either
confining the work to existing disturbed
areas or rerouting the work to avoid
suitable habitat completely, and
minimize the impact as much as
possible (Air Force 2012, p. 2). For
Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Air
Force would avoid impacting Burton
Mesa chaparral as much as possible if
utility maintenance is required in
suitable habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Plants. The
INRMP (Air Force 2011a) includes an
Invasive Plant Species Management
Plan that identifies the threat of
invasive, nonnative plants on Base, and
proposes removal methods to limit
further spread and assist in restoration
of habitat degraded by invasive species.
In most cases, the Air Force would
utilize chemical application to manage
for invasive plants (Air Force 2011a, p.
43). Although the INRMP identified
invasive, nonnative plants as a threat
and calls for their removal, it did not
identify which nonnative species, and
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which areas on Base, were a priority for
treatment.
In the 2012 addendum to their
INRMP, the Air Force identifies veldt
grass as the most problematic invasive,
nonnative plant on Base for Vandenberg
monkeyflower. As part of this
addendum, the Air Force also identified
their 10-year funding program, which
included more than $500,000 to treat
veldt grass, starting in 2009 and
continuing through 2019 (Air Force
2012). While the Air Force does not
specify precisely where, when, or how
much veldt grass will be treated or
removed in specific years, they state
that a substantial portion of this effort
will focus on areas within the range of
Vandenberg monkeyflower (Air Force
2012, p. 1). Through 2012, the Air Force
has chemically treated approximately
141 acres (57 ha) of invasive, nonnative
plants, mostly treating pampas grass
within Burton Mesa chaparral but not
near extant Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences (treatment was to benefit
Eriodictyon capitatum (Lompoc yerba
santa)). Other invasive, nonnative plants
treated included veldt grass, iceplant,
Eucalyptus spp. (Eucalyptus), and Pinus
spp. (Pine)). Only a small proportion of
this chemical removal occurred within
Burton Mesa chaparral at two locations
where Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurs (Lake and Pine Canyons) (Lum in
litt. 2013).
(4) Fire. For fires that would affect
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat, the Air Force developed a GIS
layer incorporating all potential suitable
habitat areas, which has been made
available to fire response crews for use
during actual fire events. Multiple
conservation measures that address the
potential threat of fire are included in
the addendum (Air Force 2012, p. 2),
including the following:
(a) Established roads, both paved and
unpaved, would be used to the greatest
extent possible as fire lines unless an
emergency dictates otherwise.
(b) Burned areas would be assessed
after a fire for rehabilitation options
within 10 days of the area being
declared safe for entry.
(c) Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
affected by wildfire and rehabilitation
projects will be monitored, which
would include recommendations for
nonnative species control.
(d) Following any significant wildfire
event within the range of Vandenberg
monkeyflower on Base, a Burn Area
Emergency Response (BAER) project
will be initiated. This generally includes
implementation of erosion control,
native vegetation restoration, firebreak
rehabilitation, and invasive species
management.
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Additionally, the addendum proposes
to incorporate portions of Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat in a controlled
burn program (Air Force 2012, p. 2).
(5) Recreation. No conservation
measures have been proposed to address
the threat of recreation to Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
(Reserve)
Ecological Reserves are established
under California State law to provide
protection for rare, threatened, or
endangered native plants, wildlife,
aquatic organisms, and specialized
terrestrial or aquatic habitat types.
According to the California Code of
Regulations (14 CCR Section 630),
public entry and use of ecological
reserves shall be compatible with the
primary purposes of such reserves, and
subject to general rules and regulations.
The State Lands Commission signed a
49-year lease of the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve on January 20, 2000.
The purpose of the lease is to manage,
operate, and maintain these sovereign
lands for the sensitive species and
habitats they support (Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 3). The CDFW developed a
management plan for the Reserve that
guides management of habitats, species,
and programs to achieve the mission of
CDFW to protect and enhance wildlife
values (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 1).
Conservation measures are proposed
in the management plan, as outlined
below. However, implementation of the
management goals is contingent upon
available funding and staffing.
Currently, no funding is dedicated for
the management of the Reserve and it is
staffed by 10 percent of one biologist
position. Some grant funding has been
used for specific management needs.
(1) Development. Because new
development would not occur on the
Reserve, there are no conservation
measures to implement that would
minimize this threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
(2) Utility Maintenance and
Miscellaneous Activities. Several public
utilities and local governmental
agencies provide services to the local
community and use the Reserve to
accomplish their roles. Within the
Reserve, agencies responsible for
conducting maintenance activities
submit maintenance plans for all
scheduled activities to CDFW, who in
turn may request conservation measures
(such as modifying the size and
frequency of actions) to minimize
impacts on natural resources (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, pp. 230–236). We are not
aware of specific projects in which the
CDFW has requested conservation
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measures to minimize the impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. However, the goal is to
minimize damage to sensitive biological
and cultural resources (Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 230), which would include
minimizing impacts to Burton Mesa
chaparral.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species. The
Reserve’s management plan encourages
minimizing the impact and presence of
invasive, nonnative plants, including
monitoring and removing nonnative
plants; preventing new introductions by
working with public utilities, local
governmental agencies, and
recreationists that use the Reserve; and
restoring disturbed and degraded areas
with native species (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
pp. 241–242, 249–253). Additionally,
during spring of 2011, the Santa Barbara
Botanic Garden conducted a 2-day
educational workshop at the Reserve to
discuss Burton Mesa chaparral and
identify the local plants, learn more
about the distribution and habitat
requirements of some of the County’s
rare plants, and document populations
of rapidly spreading weeds, such as
Sahara mustard, that are threatening
rare species (Junak 2011). Furthermore,
volunteers, CDFW, and our staff have
occasionally mapped, removed, or
chemically treated a few populations of
invasive, nonnative plants on the
Reserve, including Sahara mustard,
veldt grass, iceplant, and pampas grass
(Junak 2011; Meyer 2012, pers. comm.).
We recently provided funding ($60,000)
to CDFW to compare various removal
methods for invasive species, in which
part of the funding would be used to
enhance suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat on the Reserve
and monitor the results; work will
commence in 2013 (CDFG 2011, entire).
(4) Fire. The CDFW management plan
for the Reserve calls for coordination
among the Santa Barbara County Fire
Department, enforcement agencies, local
governmental agencies, and adjacent
small and large landowners to ensure
that fire risk is reduced, that new
development projects adjacent to the
Reserve are reviewed by CDFW staff and
address fuel reduction needs and
requirements, and that appropriate and
efficient post-fire remediation takes
place, where needed (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
pp. 255–262). Reducing the risk of fire
would limit the potential for wildfire to
occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat, and thus reduce the impact of
fire suppression activities and the
impact of invasive, nonnative plants
invading the habitat post-fire (see Factor
A—Invasive, Nonnative Plants and
Anthropogenic Fire sections above).
Additionally, the plan suggests
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prohibiting the use of prescribed fire for
the purposes of reducing fuel load, but
allowing use of controlled burns for
small-scale restoration projects (such as
suppression of annual grasses or
stimulation of chaparral seed bank for
restoration projects) (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
p. 258). No controlled burns within
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat have
occurred to date.
(5) Recreation. CDFW developed a
trails plan that shows existing trails
within the Reserve as well as proposed
new trail construction; seasonal trail
closures or restrictions may occur to
protect sensitive resources such as
wildlife breeding locations or rare plant
assemblages that vary from year to year
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). This system
of trails would reduce the risk of
authorized recreational uses directly
impacting suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat. The management
plan calls for maintaining public access
to the Reserve through pedestrian hiking
trails by providing a network of trails,
including loop trails, linking interesting
areas while protecting resources, and
preventing unauthorized uses (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 231).
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
General plans for State Parks are
prepared to guide future management
and development of State Park System
units. The goal of the State Parks natural
resource management program is to
protect, restore, and maintain the
natural resources in the State Park
System. A general plan is the primary
management document for each unit of
the California State Park System,
defining a park’s primary purpose, and
establishing a management direction for
its future. The General Plan must satisfy
certain requirements of the Public
Resources Code and be approved by the
California State Park and Recreation
Commission before the Department
undertakes any development in the park
that would constitute a permanent
commitment of natural or cultural
resources. Further, broad resource
management policies concerning State
Historic Parks are stated in the Public
Resources Code, the California Code of
Regulations, and the Department’s
Resource Management Directives
(California State Parks 1991, p. 54). A
general management plan for La
Purisima Mission SHP was completed
in 1991 (California State Parks 1991,
entire), and an ecosystem
characterization of La Purisima Mission
SHP was completed in 2005 (Gevirtz et
al. 2005, entire). Directives specific to
La Purisima Mission SHP that concern
the habitat where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs include
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preserving Burton Mesa chaparral,
protecting and managing rare and
endangered plants in perpetuity,
controlling nonnative plants that have
become established, and developing a
prescribed-burn plan (California State
Parks 1991, p. 54).
Conservation measures are proposed
in the general management plan, as
outlined below. However,
implementation of the management
goals is contingent upon available
funding and staffing. State Parks often
rely upon the dedicated work of
volunteers. Additionally, while the
management plan contains biological
resource conservation measures, the
primary goal of the plan for La Purisima
Mission SHP is to preserve the historical
setting and maintain the historical
‘‘sense of place’’—visitors’ sense of
stepping back in history (California
State Parks 1991, p. 3).
(1) Development. The significance of
the historical setting at La Purisima
Mission SHP has always been given a
high priority, as has management of the
existing facilities (California State Parks
1991, p. 120). There are multiple
existing structures within the park, and
any new structures must provide for
visitors’ needs without competing for
attention with historical buildings or the
natural setting. All new development
must be sensitive to that purpose of
providing appropriate visitor facilities
without detracting from the historical
and natural setting of La Purisima
Mission (California State Parks 1991, p.
121). Additionally, Burton Mesa
chaparral habitat areas are designated as
low-intensity use areas (California State
Parks 1991, p. 66). Therefore, any new
development is unlikely to impact
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat
in the park.
(2) Utility Maintenance and
Miscellaneous Activities. No
conservation measures are proposed for
the threat of utility maintenance actions
within the park; however, there is no
indication that the maintenance
activities for existing utilities have
affected Vandenberg monkeyflower or
its habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species.
California State Parks’ resource
management programs try to remove or
control invasive, nonnative species and
reestablish indigenous native species
(California State Parks 2013). Stands of
veldt grass and pampas grass within
Burton Mesa chaparral were chemically
treated in 2009 and 2010 (California
State Parks 2010, p. 3). Veldt grass
removal efforts have focused on hand
removal in areas where it is encroaching
into intact native habitat and into
sparsely vegetated areas where native
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annual herbs grow, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower. California
State Parks received funding from the
Service’s Coastal Program in August
2012 and anticipates commencing veldt
grass eradication efforts in 2013 to
enhance Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat (Service 2012c, pp. 5–6).
Specifically, California State Parks will
enhance 91 ac (37 ha) of upland habitat
surrounding extant occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower by removing
veldt grass (Service 2012c, entire).
(4) Fire. California State Parks
requires that a wildfire management
plan be developed for every State Park.
They developed a general management
plan in 1991 and stated their intent to
continue to work with the Santa Barbara
County Fire Department, the California
Department of Forestry and Fire
Protection, local fire districts, and other
appropriate agencies to implement and
keep this plan current (California State
Parks 1991, p. 57). In 2007, California
State Parks initiated development of a
wildfire management plan that would
include management strategies to
protect the existing infrastructure
(buildings) and protect cultural
resources and biological resources of the
park (which would include Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat), as well as
informing fire suppression agencies of
the areas with high-value resources and
the limits of fire suppression activities
in those areas. No prescribed burns
currently occur within the park (Cox
2013, pers. comm).
(5) Recreation. As part of the general
management plan, California State Parks
developed a trail management plan to
reduce conflicts between recreational
use and historical values of the park
(California State Parks 1991, pp. 5, 109).
Consideration will be given to
designating trails for specific types of
uses and constructing new trail
segments to avoid conflicts (California
State Parks 1991, p. 65). The trail system
requires continual brush and erosion
control, in which California State Parks
often relies on numerous volunteers
such as scouts and environmental
groups to assist the park each year in
various projects, from litter pickup to
trail construction (California State Parks
1991, p. 109). A designated trail system
would reduce the risk of authorized
recreational uses directly impacting
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
However, as described above in the
Recreation and Other Human Impacts
section, the best available information
indicates that recreational activities are
currently having minimal to no effect on
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La
Purisima Mission SHP.
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Summary of Conservation Measures
Undertaken for Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP
Management goals for the Air Force,
CDFW, and California State Parks in
these plans include, but are not limited
to, minimizing the spread and impact of
invasive, nonnative species; working
with local agencies to recognize the
importance of, and resource protections
afforded to, sensitive species like
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat; and maintaining the natural
resources of Burton Mesa, especially
Burton Mesa chaparral habitat. The Air
Force, CDFW, and California State Parks
have attempted to address the greatest
threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower by
removing or chemically treating
invasive, nonnative plants on their
lands, respectively. Working
collaboratively in some instances, the
Service has funded and volunteered
manpower to help reduce the spread
and impact of invasive, nonnative
plants. Overall, because implementation
of the management plans is dependent
upon available funding and staffing,
because of the quantity of invasive,
nonnative species that threaten
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
(Burton Mesa chaparral), and because of
the difficulty eradicating invasive,
nonnative species once they become
established on Burton Mesa, the
implementation of the management
plans as currently constituted would not
eliminate the threats described in Factor
A.
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Summary of Factor A
Most of the historical loss of Burton
Mesa chaparral is due to military,
residential, and commercial
development that occurred in the past
and resulted in many developed areas
that have existed for decades, although
historical loss of chaparral is also due to
the presence and expansion of invasive,
nonnative plants. Prior to 1938, there
were approximately 23,550 ac (9,350 ha)
of Burton Mesa chaparral (Hickson
1987, p. 34). In 2012, approximately
10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of Burton Mesa
chaparral remained, which represents a
loss of 53 percent of the original upland
habitat (Service 2012a, unpublished
data). Based on the habitat
characteristics of Burton Mesa
chaparral, it is probable that an
equivalent percent loss of sandy
openings that occur in-between shrubs
may have occurred over this timeframe
(see Background—Habitat section
above).
The majority of remaining Burton
Mesa chaparral where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs is within Federal
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or State-owned lands and is protected
from development. Therefore, largescale future development of remaining
Burton Mesa chaparral is not likely to
occur and thus is not a significant threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower. However,
smaller scale private property
development; access to easements;
maintenance of utility, oil, and gas
pipelines; fire and fire suppression; and
authorized and unauthorized
recreational activities may continue to
take place throughout Burton Mesa.
Some of these activities may occur
within Burton Mesa chaparral or
adjacent to occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, resulting in the
destruction and possible removal of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat and
creating open areas for nonnative plants
to invade. Therefore, the direct
destruction and alteration of chaparral
habitat could continue to occur on a
relatively small scale and is thus
considered a threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower both currently and in the
future.
The presence and proliferation of
invasive, nonnative plants is a threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat that
has the most significant impact to the
species because nonnatives are
spreading rapidly across Burton Mesa.
The Air Force, CDFW, and California
State Parks are implementing
conservation measures to address the
threat of nonnative plants within
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Nevertheless, invasive, nonnative plants
are present at all locations where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs, are
known to alter native habitat, including
that of Vandenberg monkeyflower, and
are reducing the abundance and
diversity of native plant species. Many
of the nonnative species that occur on
Burton Mesa are species deemed to pose
significant ecological concerns because
they displace native vegetation and
occupy sandy openings where
Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Additionally, development that has
fragmented the mesa, ground
disturbances along easements, and
authorized and unauthorized
recreational activities increase the
pathways for nonnative plants to
establish and spread. Moreover, fire
increases the potential for the invasion
of nonnative plants by creating bare
ground that facilitates the spread of
nonnative vegetation. Therefore, with
the prevailing onshore wind, an
abundant upwind source of nonnative
plants and seed, and continued ground
disturbances, we conclude that the
presence and expansion of invasive,
nonnative plants is a threat to
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Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat both
currently and in the future.
Climate change may have potential
impacts on Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat, such as increased
temperatures and decreased
precipitation that would likely reduce
suitable habitat. However, because of
the moderating influence of the ocean,
the effect of climate change on Burton
Mesa flora may be moderated.
Factor B. Overutilization for
Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes
No available information indicates
any impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower related to overutilization
for commercial, recreational, scientific,
or educational purposes or that these
activities would increase in the future.
Therefore, we do not consider this factor
to be a threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower, nor do we expect it to be
in the future.
Factor C. Disease or Predation
There is no available information
indicating any impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower related to disease or
predation, or that disease or predation
may become a concern in the future.
Therefore, we do not consider disease or
predation to be threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower, nor do we expect them
to become threats in the future.
Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing
Regulatory Mechanisms
Under this factor, we examine
whether existing regulatory mechanisms
are inadequate to address the threats to
Vandenberg monkeyflower discussed
under other factors. We give strongest
weight to statutes and their
implementing regulations, and
management direction that stems from
those laws and regulations. They are
nondiscretionary and enforceable, and
are considered a regulatory mechanism
under this analysis. Examples include
State governmental actions enforced
under a State statute or constitution, or
Federal action under statute.
Some other programs are more
voluntary in nature or dependent on
available funding (see Conservation
Measures Undertaken section above); in
those cases, we analyze the specific
facts for that effort to ascertain its
effectiveness at mitigating the threat and
the extent to which it can be relied on
in the future. Having evaluated the
significance of the threat as mitigated by
any such conservation efforts, we
analyze under Factor D the extent to
which existing regulatory mechanisms
adequately address the specific threats
to the species. Regulatory mechanisms,
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if they exist, may preclude the need for
listing if we determine that such
mechanisms adequately address the
threats to the species such that listing is
not warranted.
Vandenberg monkeyflower is not
federally or State-listed as endangered
or threatened. The Service added this
species to the Federal list of candidate
species on November 10, 2010 (75 FR
69222; see Previous Federal Actions
section above); however, candidate
species are afforded no protections
under the Act. The California Native
Plant Society (CNPS) classifies this
species as 1B.1, which denotes that a
taxon is seriously endangered in
California (CNPS 2012).
State Regulations
The California Endangered Species
Act (CESA) allows the Fish and Game
Commission to designate species,
including plants, as threatened or
endangered. The CESA makes it illegal
to import, export, ‘‘take,’’ possess,
purchase, sell, or attempt to do any of
those actions to species that are
designated as threatened, endangered,
or candidates for listing, unless
permitted by CDFW. Vandenberg
monkeyflower is not listed as threatened
or endangered under the CESA (CDFW
2012).
The Native Plant Protection Act
(NPPA) was enacted in 1977 and allows
the Fish and Game Commission to
designate plants as rare or endangered.
The NPPA prohibits take of endangered
or rare native plants, but includes some
exceptions for agricultural and nursery
operations, emergencies, and (after
properly notifying CDFW) vegetation
removal from canals, roads, and other
sites, changes in land use, and certain
other situations. Vandenberg
monkeyflower is not designated as rare
or endangered under the NPPA (CDFW
2012).
Ecological Reserves are established
under California State law to provide
protection for rare, threatened, or
endangered native plants, wildlife,
aquatic organisms, and specialized
terrestrial or aquatic habitat types.
Likewise, the goal of the State Parks
resource management program is to
protect, restore and maintain the natural
resources in the State Park System (see
Conservation Measures Undertaken
section above).
The California Environmental Quality
Act (CEQA) requires a full disclosure of
the potential impacts that proposed
projects on non-Federal lands will have
on the environment, including sensitive
resources. CEQA does not confer any
protection to sensitive species, but
merely requires disclosure of potential
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impacts. Lead CEQA agencies are also
required to disclose potential impacts to
CNPS list 1B.1 species, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower. The lead
agency for CEQA analysis is the public
agency with primary authority or
jurisdiction over the project, and is
responsible for conducting a review of
the project and consulting with other
agencies responsible for resources
affected by the project; this agency is
typically a county, city, or special
district agency. Three proposed projects
have undergone CEQA analysis on
Burton Mesa in recent years, and the
CEQA process adequately disclosed
impacts of these projects (see County or
Local Regulations below for a
discussion of the CEQA process for
these three proposed projects).
County and Local Regulations
(1) The County of Santa Barbara,
which is the lead agency responsible for
CEQA review for projects on nonFederal lands where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs, approved the
Clubhouse Estates residential
development in August 2005 (County of
Santa Barbara Planning Commission
2005) (see Factor A—Development for a
description of the project).
While the CEQA review disclosed
impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat at the Clubhouse Estates
project site, the CEQA review does not
afford protection to this species or its
habitat. Therefore, the County of Santa
Barbara included conditions to their
approval of the Clubhouse Estates
development project. County
stipulations to the Clubhouse Estates
approval that would benefit Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat included:
onsite habitat restoration and
preservation plan, an open space
management plan, onsite habitat
restoration, and native plant
propagation. Thus, the project
proponent (LFR, Inc.) developed a
restoration, construction monitoring,
and resource protection plan to address
the mitigation of native ecological
resources impacted by the development
project, to provide for restoration of
disturbed habitat within the designated
open space (Lot 54), and to describe
ecological resource protection measures
that would be implemented during
construction (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1, pp.
34–60). The restoration plan was
developed (LFR, Inc. 2006) but has not
been fully implemented, possibly due to
the development project falling into
foreclosure in December 2009 (VVCSD
2011). Additionally, LFR, Inc.
conducted actions to further preserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower by collecting
seeds and storing them at the Santa
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Barbara Botanic Garden, salvaging
topsoil from where Vandenberg
monkeyflower previously occurred on
the project site (which likely contained
a seed bank), and depositing the topsoil
outside of the project site and within
suitable habitat, and transplanting three
individual plants (McGowan in litt.
2007).
The County is also responsible for
permitting other activities, such as
grading, according to Santa Barbara
County Grading Code, Chapter 14. A
grading permit would have associated
erosion and sediment controls,
including best management practices
and other conditions of approval that
would minimize impacts to sensitive
biological resources (County of Santa
Barbara Planning and Development
2013; LFR, Inc. 2006, entire). Our
records indicate that the Clubhouse
Estates project site was cleared prior to
the developer’s acquisition of a grading
permit from the County (Mooney in litt
2006; Meyer in litt. 2006). Thus, in this
case, County regulations concerning
grading were inadequate to ensure
proper implementation of the permitting
process, which would have included
implementing the conditions of
approval that serve to minimize impacts
to sensitive biological resources. As a
result, clearing the Clubhouse Estates
project site destroyed Burton Mesa
chaparral that was occupied by
Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals
and removed adjacent habitat that likely
harbored a seed bank (Meyer in litt.
2010b; see Development—Private Lands
under Factor A). Additionally, this
unpermitted ground disturbance created
open areas where veldt grass and Sahara
mustard have expanded to areas where
they did not occur prior to the
vegetation being cleared from the
project site (Meyer in litt. 2010b; see
Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above).
(2) The City of Lompoc conducted a
CEQA review for the Burton Ranch (see
Factor A—Development for a
description of the project).
Approximately 141 of 149 ac (57 of 60
ha) of the project site would be
developed, including removal of 83 ac
(34 ha) of chaparral habitat on Burton
Mesa. No Vandenberg monkeyflower
has been observed within this project
site. A 100-ft (30-ha) buffer between the
development and the Reserve boundary
to the north of the project site and 10
ac (4 ha) of onsite open space were
proposed as part of the project (SAIC
2005a). Additionally, to mitigate for the
removal of native vegetation at the
Burton Ranch project site, the project
proponent completed a conservation
easement with the Land Trust for Santa
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Barbara County (Land Trust) that will
protect 95 ac (38 ha) of land featuring
unique Burton Mesa chaparral, coastal
scrub and oak savannah habitat near
Vandenberg Village, an area that is
known as the Burton Ranch Chaparral
Preserve (Feeney in litt. 2012). The Land
Trust received this 95 ac (38 ha) and
will monitor the property and work
with CDFW to protect and enhance the
ecological resources of the site (Land
Trust 2013). This area straddles adjacent
portions of the Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve and is connected to the Reserve
via walking trails (Land Trust in litt.
2011).
(3) The Allan Hancock College
District conducted the CEQA analysis
for a proposal to construct a public
safety complex at Allan Hancock
College (see Factor A—Development
section for a description of the project).
The proposal includes removal of at
least 40 ac (16 ha) of chaparral habitat
on Burton Mesa along the northern
project boundary that is contiguous with
the Davis Creek drainage. Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been observed
within this project site. Approximately
105 of the 200 ac (42 of 81 ha) of the
site is covered with chaparral habitat
and, minus the 40 ac (16 ha) of
chaparral within the project footprint,
approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of chaparral
habitat that is contiguous would be
preserved (Allan Hancock College 2009,
pp. 9, 135). Preserving chaparral in this
area may reduce the potential for
nonnative plants to invade the intact
Burton Mesa chaparral that is
contiguous with the Reserve to the north
of this project site.
Despite implementation of the CEQA
process and disclosure of the impacts to
this species or its habitat, these projects
illustrate that development can
constitute a direct threat (removal of
Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals)
to Vandenberg monkeyflower and/or
suitable habitat, and this threat is
present and is expected to continue into
the future (see Development—Private
Lands section under Factor A above)
within Burton Mesa chaparral
(Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat) on
non-Federal lands. Threats to the habitat
are exacerbated because grounddisturbing projects further fragment
chaparral habitat and create open areas
(i.e., vectors) for invasive, nonnative
plants to establish and further expand
into Burton Mesa (see the Invasive,
Nonnative Species section above).
Federal Regulations
The National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) requires full disclosure of
potential impacts that proposed projects
on Federal lands or with Federal
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involvement will have on the
environment, including sensitive
resources. The NEPA process would
apply to projects proposed on
Vandenberg AFB and projects on nonFederal lands that include a Federal
nexus, such as funding or permitting by
a Federal agency. The NEPA analysis,
like CEQA, does not confer any
protection to sensitive species, but
merely discloses potential impacts.
Although Federal agencies may include
conservation measures for Vandenberg
monkeyflower as a result of the NEPA
process, any such measures are typically
voluntary in nature and are not required
by statute.
For example, although the
Vandenberg monkeyflower is not yet a
federally threatened or endangered
species, it is recognized by Vandenberg
AFB as a species deserving of
conservation measures as demonstrated
by the Air Force’s recent submittal of a
proposal to include Vandenberg
monkeyflower in their INRMP (Air
Force 2012). The Air Force could
include conservation measures for
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat as a result of the NEPA process.
The NEPA would not itself regulate
activities that might affect Vandenberg
monkeyflower, but it would require full
evaluation and disclosure of
information regarding the effects of
contemplated Federal actions on
sensitive species and their habitats.
The Sikes Act requires the
Department of Defense to develop and
implement INRMPs for military
installations in the United States.
INRMPs direct the management and use
of the lands on a military installation
and are prepared in cooperation with
the Service and State fish and wildlife
agencies (i.e., CDFW) to ensure proper
consideration of fish, wildlife, and
habitat needs (see Conservation
Measures Undertaken section above for
more discussion of Vandenberg AFB’s
INRMP).
Summary of Factor D
The existing regulatory mechanisms
at the Federal and State levels require
evaluation of potential actions that may
impact Vandenberg monkeyflower and
its habitat on Burton Mesa. At the
Federal level, the NEPA only requires
evaluation of impacts to the human
environment. The Sikes Act requires
military installations to develop
INRMPs to ensure proper consideration
of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs on
their lands. However, no protections are
in place at the local, State, and Federal
levels that are intended to protect a
plant species that is not Federally or
State-listed, although Vandenberg AFB
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has proposed to include this species in
their INRMP. Additionally, at least one
incident of unauthorized grading
occurred without following the required
local permit process; loss of Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals and habitat
was documented.
Federal and State ownership of much
of the occupied Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and the
regulatory purposes that define the use
of those Federal and State lands protect
the species from direct losses of habitat
and provide further protection from
many of the forms of disturbance
described above. However, the current
regulatory regime does not address the
majority of impacts associated with loss
of Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
(i.e., development of private lands that
result in habitat loss, fire and fire
suppression efforts, authorized and
unauthorized recreation activities, and
the invasion and expansion of invasive,
nonnative species). As described above
under Factor A, the primary threat with
the greatest severity and magnitude of
impact to Vandenberg monkeyflower is
invasive, nonnative species invasion
and expansion. The existing regulatory
mechanisms currently in place at the
local, State, and national levels are
inadequate to address this threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat.
Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade
Factors Affecting Its Continued
Existence
Competition for Resources With
Invasive, Nonnative Species
In Factor A, we discussed how
invasive, nonnative plants alter the
habitat that supports Vandenberg
monkeyflower. In this section, we
discuss how invasive, nonnative plants
compete with individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower for light,
water, and soil nutrients.
Invasion of nonnative plants and in
particular nonnative grasses are a threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower because
small annuals such as this species most
likely cannot compete with fast-growing
nonnative plants for light, water, and
soil nutrients (refer to Barrows et al.
2009; Lambrinos 2000; D’Antonio and
Vitousek 1992). Grasses have long been
recognized as effective competitors with
herbaceous and woody species (Davis
and Mooney 1985; D’Antonio and
Vitousek 1992).
(1) Sunlight. Rapidly growing
nonnative grasses can reduce light at the
soil surface and thereby reduce the
photosynthetic ability of competitors
(Thompson 1991, pp. 394–395). Like
certain other annual Diplacus taxa,
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Vandenberg monkeyflower only grows
in habitats with little to no competition
from invasive, nonnative plants (VFWO
2013). As described in Factor A—
Invasive, Nonnative Plants, high
densities of veldt grass would easily
overtop Vandenberg monkeyflower
because of monkeyflower’s small
stature, which in turn creates shaded
conditions that are not suitable for
germination and growth of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Additionally, Sahara
mustard is able to form a canopy up to
3 ft (1 m) aboveground; this forces the
native plants growing under the canopy
to put more energy into growing taller
at the expense of producing branches,
flowers, and fruits (Barrows et al. 2009,
p. 683). Therefore, because veldt grass
and Sahara mustard grow taller in
stature and more quickly than
Vandenberg monkeyflower, these
invading nonnative plants would likely
shade and reduce the productivity and
survival of Vandenberg monkeyflower
where these species occur in close
proximity to one another. Veldt grass in
particular is of immediate concern given
its presence at: (1) All of the
Vandenberg monkeyflower extant
occurrences; and (2) one potentially
extirpated occurrence (i.e., Lower Santa
Lucia Canyon (Meyer in litt. 2012c)),
where veldt grass is a dominant species
within the sandy openings and where
herbs that are commonly associated
with Vandenberg monkeyflower are
absent.
(2) Water and Soil Nutrients.
Nonnative grasses compete effectively
with native species for water and soil
nutrients (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992,
p. 70). The effective uptake of water and
nutrients by grasses is the result of their
dense shallow root systems. The root
systems of most woody species are
deeper and less dense than those of
grasses; once woody species become
large, they are generally thought to have
access to moisture and nutrients from
portions of the soil profile below grass
roots (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p.
70). Shallow-rooted herbs that occur in
open areas were found to deplete soil
moisture to a maximum depth of 1.6 ft
(0.5 m); grassland plants had roots
active to 2.5 ft (0.75 m); and chaparral
had roots extending below 6.6 ft (2.0 m)
(Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 525).
Therefore, grasses are most effective as
competitors against seedlings and
shallow-rooted annuals rather than
saplings or adults of woody species
(Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 528;
D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 70).
However, Knoop and Walker (1985, p.
249) demonstrated that grasses can
reduce water availability in the subsoil
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at a depth of 1 to 4.25 ft (0.3 to 1.3 m)
where shrub roots are common.
Many examples exist of invasive,
nonnative plants outcompeting native
herbs and shrubs for water and soil
nutrients, some of which include the
following:
(1) Davis and Mooney (1985, p. 528)
demonstrated across a grasslandchaparral ecotone in Jasper Ridge
Biological Preserve (approximately 7.5
mi (12 km) west of Palo Alto, California)
that bare-zone annual herbs, such as
Navarretia heterodoxa (Calistoga
pincushionplant) and Lessingia
germanorum var. glandulifera (valley
lessingia), would be poor competitors
against grassland species, in part,
because these annual plants are shallow
rooted and nonnative annual grasses are
able to deplete the water in shallow soil.
(2) Eliason and Allen (1997, p. 252)
conducted a study in the Santa
Margarita Ecological Reserve (near
Temecula, California) and determined
that the growth and survival of
transplanted Artemisia californica
(California sagebrush) seedlings was
significantly reduced in the presence of
Mediterranean annual grasses from
germination through the first growing
season. This effect was due to the
depletion of soil water because young
California sagebrush and nonnative
annual grasses are both shallow rooted.
(3) Melgoza et al. (1990, pp. 11–12)
conducted a study in Belle Flats
(approximately 22 mi (35 km) north of
Reno, Nevada) and demonstrated that
competition with Bromus tectorum
(cheatgrass) negatively affected the
productivity and water status of native
perennial species. Melgoza et al. (1990,
pp. 7, 11–12) found cheatgrass
suppressed productivity of native
species for an extended period of time
(12 years after a fire) once it was
established in open areas around native
species, thus enhancing its capability
after a fire to exploit soil resources and
enhance its status in the community.
Because individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower are small in stature
(growing up to 10 in (25.4 cm) tall),
invasive, nonnative plants that grow
taller in stature and quicker than this
species (such as veldt grass and Sahara
mustard; see Factor A—Invasive,
Nonnative Plants and Anthropogenic
Fire section) may inhibit the growth and
production of Vandenberg
monkeyflower attempting to grow
nearby. Moreover, because Vandenberg
monkeyflower likely is shallow rooted
like other small annual plants that grow
in sandy openings within chaparral,
invasive, nonnative grasses that occur
within and near the species are likely
outcompeting it by depleting the water
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at shallow depths and soil nutrients that
it requires. Veldt grass is of particular
concern because: (1) It is present at nine
(100 percent) of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower extant occurrences and
one potentially extirpated occurrence
(i.e., Lower Santa Lucia Canyon); and
(2) it has deep-reaching roots that are
able to tolerate Mediterranean climates
(Tothill 1962, pp 132–161). Thus, veldt
grass could deplete the water and soil
nutrients that would otherwise be
available for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Small Population Size and Restricted
Range
According to the criteria put forth by
the World Conservation Union, as
modified for plants, a species that has
life history, population, and distribution
attributes similar to those of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is considered to have a
high risk of extinction in the wild in the
immediate future (Keith 1998, pp. 1085–
1087). Species with few populations
and individuals are vulnerable to the
threat of naturally occurring events,
which can cause extinction through
mechanisms operating either at the
genetic, population, or landscape level
(Shaffer 1981, pp. 131–134; Primack
1998, pp. 279–308). Environmental
stochasticity is annual variation in
reproduction and death rates in
response to weather, disease,
competition, predation, or other factors
external to the population (Shaffer 1981,
p. 131). Natural catastrophes or
prolonged drought could also result in
the extirpation of a small population
(Shaffer 1981, p. 131).
The genetic characteristics of
Vandenberg monkeyflower have not
been investigated; therefore, the degree
to which genetic characteristics
contribute to the likelihood of this
species being vulnerable to extinction is
unknown. However, random events
operating at the population and
landscape levels may increase the
chance of extinction for Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Although data are not
available to determine population
trends for this species, the best available
information gained from multiple
survey years between 2003 and 2012
indicate that 3 occurrences (33 percent)
have fewer than 100 individuals. Six
occurrences (67 percent) were recently
shown to harbor more than 100
individuals, and 2 of those 6
occurrences (22 percent) contained
more than 1,000 individuals (see
Current Status of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower section above). Numbers
of plants observed during the most
recent surveys are low for the three
occurrences that have historically had
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fewer than 100 individuals observed
(but a seed bank may still exist):
(1) Four individuals were found in
2006 at Oak Canyon, although no
individuals were found during the most
recent surveys in 2010 and 2012 (VFWO
2013; Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in litt.
2012b; Rutherford in litt. 2012).
(2) Twenty-five individuals were
found in 2006 at the Santa Lucia
Canyon occurrence, and one individual
was found during the most recent
survey in 2010 (Ballard 2006; Lum in
litt. 2012b).
(3) Five individuals were found in
2003 at the Volans Avenue occurrence,
one in 2007, and no plants were found
in other years surveyed between 2004
and 2009 (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in
litt. 2007).
Vandenberg monkeyflower fits the
profile of a species that is considered to
have small population numbers for an
annual plant and is vulnerable to
extinction because it has a restricted
geographic range, and less than 10
known occurrences with less than
10,000 mature individuals (Keith 1998,
pp. 1085–1087) (see Distribution of
Vandenberg Monkeyflower—Current
Status section above). Additionally, the
potential further fragmentation of
habitat and resulting increased isolation
of Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences affect the species rangewide
by increasing the risk of population loss
and potentially subsequent loss of
genetic characteristics.
Species with few populations or those
with low numbers may be subject to
forces at the population level that affect
their ability to complete their life cycles
successfully. The number and density of
flowering plants in a population can be
important determinants of pollinator
abundance and behavior (Jennersten
1988, pp. 361–363; Bernhardt et al.
2008, p. 948). Reduced numbers of
individuals of flowering plants may lead
to a reduction in abundance of
pollinators and subsequent seed set and
fitness of seed progeny (Menges 1991, p.
162). Specific information is not
available for Vandenberg monkeyflower;
however, these studies on other plantpollinator relationships point out the
importance of pollinators that is likely
applicable to Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
The invasion of nonnative plants has
the ability to reduce the abundance of
pollinators, which can have deleterious
effects on reproduction of native plants.
Jennersten (1988, p. 363) found that
insect diversity, insect visitation rates to
Dianthus deltoides (maiden pink), and
number of seeds produced were
significantly reduced where maiden
pink was in a more fragmented habitat
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compared to continuous habitat.
Lambrinos (2000, pp. 228) found that
invasion of nonnative plants such as
pampas grass can reduce the abundance
of pollinators because pampas grass
replaces nectar- and pollen-rich flowers
of native shrubs and reduces the
diversity of feeding sites provided by
woody perennials. Lambrinos (2000, p.
227) also noted that arthropod (spiders
and insects) abundance is lower overall,
and known to be absent in areas
dominated by pampas grass. In contrast,
Bernhardt et al. (2008, p. 948) found
that pollination of a native species such
as Lupinus perennis (sundial lupine)
increased with both population size and
population density, which significantly
affected insect visitation rates.
Therefore, because Vandenberg
monkeyflower has less than 10
occurrences, consists of low numbers of
individuals, and invasive, nonnative
plants are replacing native vegetation of
Burton Mesa, this species may
experience reduced reproduction
because of reduced visitation by insect
pollinators. However, we are unaware of
specific information concerning the
extent to which this may be a threat for
Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Annual plants that are subject to wide
fluctuations in population numbers
from year to year, such as Vandenberg
monkeyflower, may have difficulty
maintaining a viable population size
after a series of poor seed-production
years. Additionally, if the host plants
(plants being visited by pollinators) are
partially self-incompatible, reduction in
population size may lead to increased
self-pollination and may reduce the
level of genetic variability. At the
landscape level, random natural events,
such as storms, drought, or fire, could
destroy a significant percentage of
individuals or entire populations.
Because Vandenberg monkeyflower
comprises a small number of locations
and individuals, and is restricted to a
small geographic area on Burton Mesa,
this species’ risk of extinction increases
from such naturally occurring events.
No empirical information is available to
estimate trends for Vandenberg
monkeyflower populations; however,
the continued decrease in habitat
(especially from nonnative plant
invasions) is contributing to habitat
fragmentation and impacting the
species’ ability to persist.
Recreation
Recreational use occurs on Burton
Mesa within Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP.
We discussed the effects to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat resulting from
recreational use (see Factor A—
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Recreation); however, recreational
activities may also result in trampling
individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. The Volans Avenue
occurrence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is adjacent to a sewer
line easement that is also used for
hiking and dog walking. Recreational
users are encouraged to stay within
existing and designated trails (see
Factor A—Recreation). No other
location where this species occurs is
adjacent to designated trails. Therefore,
the best available information indicates
that recreational activities involving
casual human use are having minimal
effect on individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Unauthorized
recreational activities such as mountain
biking and ORV use have resulted in
damaged native vegetation, and
squashed and sometimes broken plant
parts (Meyer in litt. 2010c; Meyer in litt.
2013). Determining where the
unauthorized ORV activity originates on
the Reserve is difficult because of the
historical network of trails and roads.
Available information does not indicate
the extent and degree to which ORV
activity and mountain biking may be
impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower
individuals.
Summary of Factor E
Competition for light, water, and soil
nutrients from invasive, nonnative
vegetation, particularly nonnative
grasses, is a threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Because this species has
a restricted range and small population
numbers, it is vulnerable to naturally
occurring events such as a wildfire,
storms, and drought that could
negatively affect its growth and
productivity. Additionally, because of
the restricted range, small number of
individuals at each occurrence, and the
spread of invasive, nonnative plants
adjacent to each occurrence, this species
is vulnerable to a reduction of visits by
pollinating insects. The best available
information indicates that casual
recreational use has a minimal impact to
individuals. Unauthorized recreational
uses (ORVs and mountain biking) have
the potential to result in damage to the
native vegetation; however, the best
information available does not indicate
a direct threat to individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Indirect
effects of potential ground disturbance
could create openings in the vegetation
and assist the seed spread and
establishment of nonnative vegetation.
Therefore, we conclude that
competition for resources with invasive,
nonnative species and small population
size and restricted range are threats to
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Combination of Factors
Many of the threats discussed above
act in concert, and the resulting effects
to Vandenberg monkeyflower are
amplified. For example, some land uses
and development or maintenance
activities (Factor A) create ground
disturbance and subsequent openings in
the vegetation where nonnative plants
(Factor A) can invade, expand, and
outcompete native vegetation (Factor E).
Fires on Burton Mesa (Factor A) result
in an increase in nonnative vegetation
(Factor A). Similarly, an abundance of
nonnative vegetation, particularly
grasses (Factor A and E), may result in
an increase in fire frequency (Factor A).
The availability of habitat and small
overall population size (Factor E) may
be affected in a changing climate and by
events such as wildfire (Factor A). Thus,
Vandenberg monkeyflower’s
productivity may be reduced because of
these threats, either singularly or in
combination. Existing regulatory
mechanisms have not proven effective
at protecting Vandenberg monkeyflower
or its habitat from these threats (Factor
D).
The presence of invasive plants is the
most significant threat to this species,
both alone and in combination with
other Factors (e.g., anthropogenic fire,
recreation). The combination of factors
would likely create a cumulative or
synergistic threat to the existence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Given these
circumstances, the combined effects of
current threats to the population put the
species at risk rangewide, although the
magnitude or extent of such threats to
the viability of the species is not at this
time determinable from available
information.
Proposed Determination
We have carefully assessed the best
scientific and commercial information
available regarding the past, present,
and future threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower. We have identified
threats to Vandenberg monkeyflower
attributable to Factors A, D, and E.
In the summary of the threats
described in detail above, we found that
Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable
habitat on Burton Mesa has been
displaced by military, residential, and
commercial development, although the
most significant ongoing threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower is the loss of
habitat due to the presence and
continual spread of invasive, nonnative
plants (Factor A). Approximately 53
percent of Burton Mesa chaparral
habitat has been lost, with only 10,057
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ac (4,070 ha) of the 23,550 ac (9,350 ha)
that existed before 1938 remaining.
Additionally, invasive, nonnative
plants, in particular veldt grass, are
present and continuing to expand at all
nine extant locations. No Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals have been
observed at the three smallest extant
locations (in the last 3 years at one
location and the last 6 years at the other
two locations) even though a residual
seed bank is likely present. Burton Mesa
chaparral is also subject to an
anthropogenic fire regime that can
increase the presence of invasive plants
(Factor A). Casual human recreational
use and utility maintenance activities
can contribute to habitat disturbance
that facilitates pathways for nonnative
species to invade Burton Mesa chaparral
habitat (Factor A).
Furthermore, invasive, nonnative
plants are likely competing with
Vandenberg monkeyflower for sunlight,
water, and soil resources, and the
species’ restricted range and small
population size makes it vulnerable to
changing environmental conditions due
to climate change and other random,
naturally occurring events (Factor E).
Small population size is a highlighted
concern in part due to the low number
of individuals found to exist at the 3
smallest extant occurrences, in
particular 3 of the 9 occurrences that
have a range of 0 to 25 individuals
documented between 2003 and 2012.
The threats described above for
Vandenberg monkeyflower occur across
its entire range, resulting in a negative
impact on the species’ distribution,
abundance, and probability of long-term
persistence. Existing regulatory
mechanisms are not adequate to protect
the species or its habitat from these
identified threats (Factor D).
The Act defines an endangered
species as any species that is ‘‘in danger
of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of its range’’ and a
threatened species as any species ‘‘that
is likely to become endangered
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range within the foreseeable future.’’
We find that Vandenberg monkeyflower
has a restricted range and is facing
ongoing and projected threats across its
range. We conclude that it meets the
definition of an endangered species
throughout its entire range due
primarily to: (1) The invasion, spread,
and competition of invasive, nonnative
species at all nine extant locations; and
(2) small population size that makes it
vulnerable to stochastic events. These
impacts are heightened due to
anthropogenic fire conditions that
promote further invasion of nonnative
species; recreation and other human
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activities that contribute to the spread of
invasive, nonnative species; and
continued development on private lands
that further reduces and fragments the
remaining suitable habitat. The threats
to its continued existence are not
commencing in the foreseeable future
(which would result in a status
determination of a threatened species),
but are immediate and ongoing. We base
this determination on the immediacy,
severity, and scope of the threats
described above. Therefore, on the basis
of the best available scientific and
commercial information, we propose
listing Vandenberg monkeyflower as an
endangered species in accordance with
sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act.
Under the Act and our implementing
regulations, a species may warrant
listing if it meets the definition of an
endangered or threatened species
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range. The Vandenberg
monkeyflower that is proposed for
listing in this rule is highly restricted in
its range and the threats occur
throughout its range. Therefore, we
assessed the status of Vandenberg
monkeyflower throughout its entire
range. The threats to the survival of the
species occur throughout the species
range and are not restricted to any
particular significant portion of that
range. Accordingly, our assessment and
proposed determination applies to the
species throughout its entire range.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to
species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include
recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and
prohibitions against certain practices.
Recognition through listing results in
public awareness and conservation by
Federal, State, Tribal, and local
agencies, private organizations, and
individuals. The Act encourages
cooperation with the States and requires
that recovery actions be carried out for
all listed species. The protection
required by Federal agencies and the
prohibitions against certain activities
are discussed, in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the
conservation of endangered and
threatened species and the ecosystems
upon which they depend. The ultimate
goal of such conservation efforts is the
recovery of these listed species, so that
they no longer need the protective
measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of
the Act requires the Service to develop
and implement recovery plans for the
conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery
planning process involves the
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identification of actions that are
necessary to halt or reverse the species’
decline by addressing the threats to its
survival and recovery. The goal of this
process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, selfsustaining, and functioning components
of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the
development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed,
preparation of a draft and final recovery
plan, and revisions to the plan as
significant new information becomes
available. The recovery outline guides
the immediate implementation of urgent
recovery actions and describes the
process to be used to develop a recovery
plan. The recovery plan identifies sitespecific management actions that will
achieve recovery of the species,
measurable criteria that indicate when a
species may be downlisted or delisted,
and methods for monitoring recovery
progress. Recovery plans also establish
a framework for agencies to coordinate
their recovery efforts and provide
estimates of the cost of implementing
recovery tasks. Recovery teams
(comprising species experts, Federal
and State agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, or stakeholders) are often
established to develop recovery plans. If
a final listing rule is completed for
Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Service
will develop and complete a recovery
outline, draft recovery plan, and the
final recovery plan that will be available
on our Web site (https://www.fws.gov/
endangered), or from our Ventura Fish
and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions
generally requires the participation of a
broad range of partners, including other
Federal agencies, States, Tribal,
nongovernmental organizations,
businesses, and private landowners.
Examples of recovery actions include
habitat restoration (for example,
restoration of native vegetation),
research, captive propagation and
reintroduction, and outreach and
education. The recovery of many listed
species cannot be accomplished solely
on Federal lands because their range
may occur primarily or solely on nonFederal lands. To achieve recovery of
these species requires cooperative
conservation efforts on private, State,
and Tribal lands.
If this species is listed, funding for
recovery actions may be available from
a variety of sources, including Federal
budgets, State programs, and cost share
grants for non-Federal landowners, the
academic community, and
nongovernmental organizations.
Additionally, pursuant to section 6 of
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the Act, the State of California would be
eligible for Federal funds to implement
management actions that promote the
protection and recovery of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Information on our grant
programs that are available to aid
species recovery can be found at: https://
www.fws.gov/grants.
Although Vandenberg monkeyflower
is only proposed for listing under the
Act at this time, please let us know if
you are interested in participating in
recovery efforts for this species.
Additionally, we invite you to submit
any new information on this species
whenever it becomes available and any
information you may have for recovery
planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act requires
Federal agencies to evaluate their
actions with respect to any species that
is proposed or listed as endangered or
threatened and with respect to its
critical habitat, if any is designated.
Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the
Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402.
Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires
Federal agencies to confer with the
Service on any action that is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of a
species proposed for listing or result in
destruction or adverse modification of
proposed critical habitat. If a species is
listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of
the Act requires Federal agencies to
ensure that activities they authorize,
fund, or carry out are not likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of
the species or destroy or adversely
modify its critical habitat. If a Federal
action may affect a listed species or its
critical habitat, the responsible Federal
agency must enter into consultation
with the Service.
Federal agencies proposing activities
within the species’ habitat that may
need to conference or consult or both
with the Service as described in the
preceding paragraph include the
Department of Defense, the Bureau of
Prisons, the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission, and the Federal Highway
Administration. Activities potentially
include management and any other
landscape-altering activities on Federal
lands administered by the Department
of Defense or the Bureau of Prisons,
issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act
permits by the Army Corps of Engineers,
construction and management of gas
pipeline and power line ROWs licensed
by the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission, and funding by the
Federal Highway Administration for the
construction and maintenance of roads
or highways.
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The Act and its implementing
regulations set forth a series of general
prohibitions and exceptions that apply
to endangered plants. All prohibitions
of section 9(a)(2) of the Act,
implemented by 50 CFR 17.61, apply.
These prohibitions, in part, make it
illegal for any person subject to the
jurisdiction of the United States to
import or export, transport in interstate
or foreign commerce in the course of a
commercial activity, sell or offer for sale
in interstate or foreign commerce, or
remove and reduce the species to
possession from areas under Federal
jurisdiction. Additionally, for plants
listed as endangered, the Act prohibits
the malicious damage or destruction on
areas under Federal jurisdiction and the
removal, cutting, digging up, or
damaging or destroying of such plants
in knowing violation of any State law or
regulation, including State criminal
trespass law. Certain exceptions to the
prohibitions apply to agents of the
Service and State conservation agencies.
Vandenberg monkeyflower is not
currently designated as rare or
endangered under the NPPA or the
CESA (CDFW 2012).
CEQA requires a full disclosure of the
potential impacts that proposed projects
on non-Federal lands will have on the
environment, including sensitive
resources. However, CEQA does not
confer any protection to sensitive
species, but merely discloses potential
impacts. The lead agency for CEQA
analysis is the public agency with
primary authority or jurisdiction over
the project, and is responsible for
conducting a review of the project and
consulting with other agencies
responsible for resources affected by the
project. Under CEQA, lead agencies are
required to disclose potential impacts
from proposals to CNPS list 1B.1
species; this mechanism may indirectly
provide some protection to Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
We may issue permits to carry out
otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened
wildlife and plant species under certain
circumstances. Regulations governing
permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.62 for
endangered plant species, and at 17.72
for threatened plant species.
It is our policy, as published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR
34272), to identify to the maximum
extent practicable at the time a species
is listed, those activities that would or
would not constitute a violation of
section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of
the effects of a proposed listing on
proposed and ongoing activities within
the range of the species proposed for
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listing. The following activities could
potentially result in a violation of
section 9 of the Act; this list is not
comprehensive:
Removing and reducing to possession
Vandenberg monkeyflower from areas
under Federal jurisdiction; malicious
damage or destruction of Vandenberg
monkeyflower from areas under Federal
jurisdiction; unauthorized collecting,
handling, possessing, selling, delivering,
carrying, or transport across State lines
and import or export across
international boundaries, except for
properly documented antique
specimens of these taxa at least 100
years old, as defined by section 10(h)(1)
of the Act.
Questions regarding whether specific
activities would constitute a violation of
section 9 of the Act should be directed
to the Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Requests for copies of the regulations
concerning listed plants and general
inquiries regarding prohibitions and
permits may be addressed to the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered
Species Permits, Regional Recovery
Permit Coordinator, Carlsbad Fish and
Wildlife Office, 6010 Hidden Valley
Road, Suite 101, Carlsbad, California
92011; (telephone 760–431–9440 ext.
225; facsimile 760–930–0846).
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Peer Review
In accordance with our joint policy on
peer review published in the Federal
Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270),
we will seek the expert opinions of at
least three appropriate and independent
specialists regarding this proposed rule.
The purpose of peer review is to ensure
that our listing determination is based
on scientifically sound data,
assumptions, and analyses. We have
invited these peer reviewers to comment
during this public comment period.
We will consider all comments and
information received during this
comment period on this proposed rule
during our preparation of a final
determination. Accordingly, the final
decision may differ from this proposal.
Public Hearings
Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for
one or more public hearings on this
proposal, if requested. Requests must be
received within 45 days after the date of
publication of this proposed rule in the
Federal Register. Such requests must be
sent to the address shown in FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will
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schedule public hearings on this
proposal, if any are requested, and
announce the dates, times, and places of
those hearings, as well as how to obtain
reasonable accommodations, in the
Federal Register and local newspapers
at least 15 days before the hearing.
Required Determinations
Clarity of the Rule
We are required by Executive Orders
12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1,
1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we
publish must:
(1) Be logically organized;
(2) Use the active voice to address
readers directly;
(3) Use clear language rather than
jargon;
(4) Be divided into short sections and
sentences; and
(5) Use lists and tables wherever
possible.
If you feel that we have not met these
requirements, send us comments by one
of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To
better help us revise the rule, your
comments should be as specific as
possible. For example, you should tell
us the numbers of the sections or
paragraphs that are unclearly written,
which sections or sentences are too
long, the sections where you feel lists or
tables would be useful, etc.
Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44
U.S.C. 3501 et seq.)
This rule does not contain any new
collections of information that require
approval by OMB under the Paperwork
Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501
et seq.). This rule will not impose
recordkeeping or reporting requirements
on State or local governments,
individuals, businesses, or
organizations. An agency may not
conduct or sponsor, and a person is not
required to respond to, a collection of
information unless it displays a
currently valid OMB control number.
National Environmental Policy Act (42
U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)
We have determined that
environmental assessments and
environmental impact statements, as
defined under the authority of the NEPA
(42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be
prepared in connection with listing a
species as endangered or threatened
under the Endangered Species Act. We
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published a notice outlining our reasons
for this determination in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR
49244).
It is our position that, outside the
jurisdiction of the U.S. Court of Appeals
for the 10th Circuit, we do not need to
prepare environmental analyses
pursuant to NEPA in connection with
designating critical habitat under the
Endangered Species Act. We published
a notice outlining our reasons for this
determination in the Federal Register
on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). This
position was upheld by the U.S. Court
of Appeals for the 9th Circuit (Douglas
County v. Babbitt, 48 F.3d 1495 (9th Cir.
1995), cert. denied 516 U.S. 1042
(1996)).]
References Cited
A complete list of references cited in
this rulemaking is available on the
Internet at https://www.regulations.gov at
Docket No. FWS–ES–R8–2013–0078 and
upon request from the Ventura Fish and
Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).
Authors
The primary authors of this package
are the staff members of the Ventura
Fish and Wildlife Office.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species,
Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements,
Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we propose to amend
part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title
50 of the Code of Federal Regulations,
as set forth below:
PART 17—[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17
continues to read as follows:
■
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531–
1544; 4201–4245; unless otherwise noted.
2. In § 17.12(h) add an entry for
‘‘Diplacus vandenbergensis
(Vandenberg monkeyflower) to the List
of Endangered and Threatened Plants in
alphabetical order under Flowering
Plants to read as follows:
■
§ 17.12
*
Endangered and threatened plants.
*
*
(h) * * *
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*
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Species
Historic range
Scientific name
Family
Status
*
U.S.A. (CA) .............
*
Phrymaceae ...........
When listed
Critical
habitat
*
....................
....................
Common name
Special
rules
FLOWERING PLANTS
*
Diplacus
vandenbergensis.
*
*
Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
*
*
*
*
E
*
*
Dated: September 30, 2013.
Rowan W. Gould,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service.
[FR Doc. 2013–25397 Filed 10–28–13; 8:45 am]
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*
Agencies
[Federal Register Volume 78, Number 209 (Tuesday, October 29, 2013)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 64839-64871]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2013-25397]
[[Page 64839]]
Vol. 78
Tuesday,
No. 209
October 29, 2013
Part VI
Department of the Interior
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for
Vandenberg Monkeyflower; Proposed Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 78 , No. 209 / Tuesday, October 29, 2013 /
Proposed Rules
[[Page 64840]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-AY27
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status
for Vandenberg Monkeyflower
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, propose to list
Vandenberg monkeyflower as an endangered species under the Endangered
Species Act. If we finalize this rule as proposed, it would extend the
Endangered Species Act's protections to this plant. The effect of this
regulation will be to add Vandenberg monkeyflower to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants under the Endangered Species Act.
DATES: We will accept all comments received or postmarked on or before
December 30, 2013. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal
eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES section below) must be received by
11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests
for public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT by December 13, 2013.
ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal: https://www.regulations.gov and search for FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078, which is the
docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the Search panel on the
left side of the screen, under the Document Type heading, click on the
Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You may submit a comment
by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public
Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078; Division of Policy and
Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax
Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described
above. We will post all information received on https://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any
personal information you provide us (see the Information Requested
section below for more information).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Stephen P. Henry, Acting Field
Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ventura Fish and Wildlife
Office, 2493 Portola Road, Suite B, Ventura, CA 93003; telephone 805-
644-1766; facsimile 805-644-3958. If you use a telecommunications
device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service
(FIRS) at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Endangered Species Act of
1973, as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531, et seq.) (Act), if a species is
determined to be an endangered or threatened species throughout all or
a significant portion of its range, we are required to promptly publish
a proposal in the Federal Register and make a determination on our
proposal within 1 year. Critical habitat shall be designated, to the
maximum extent prudent and determinable, for any species determined to
be an endangered or threatened species under the Act. Listing a species
as an endangered or threatened species and designations and revisions
of critical habitat can only be completed by issuing a rule.
This rule consists of a proposed rule to list Vandenberg
monkeyflower (previously identified as a candidate for listing by the
name Mimulus fremontii var. vandenbergensis, currently known as
Diplacus vandenbergensis, and hereafter referred to as Vandenberg
monkeyflower, with the exception of the Description and Taxonomy
section below) as an endangered species. This plant occurs in nine
locations exclusively on Burton Mesa, a distinct geographic region in
Santa Barbara County, California.
The basis for our action. Under the Act, we can determine that a
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five
factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence.
We have determined Vandenberg monkeyflower faces threats under
Factors A, D, and E. The greatest threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower is
the presence and expansion of invasive, nonnative plants that are
abundant on Burton Mesa, particularly occurring within or adjacent to
all known occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat includes sandy openings (canopy gaps) within the
dominant vegetation. Ground-disturbing activities (including wildfires)
create additional open areas that are invaded by nonnative plants,
which precludes establishment of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Furthermore,
the availability of habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower and its small
overall population size may be affected by a suite of threats
(including stochastic events such as wildfire and a changing climate)
acting synergistically on the species. Based on the best available
scientific and commercial information, we find that the species has a
restricted range, faces ongoing and future threats across its range,
and is in danger of extinction throughout all of its range.
We will seek peer review. We are seeking comments from
knowledgeable individuals with scientific expertise to review our
analysis of the best available science and application of that science
and to provide any additional scientific information to improve this
proposed rule. Because we will consider all comments and information
received during the comment period, our final determination may differ
from this proposal.
Information Requested
We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule
will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request
comments or information from the public, other concerned governmental
agencies, Native American tribes, the scientific community, industry,
or any other interested parties concerning this proposed rule. We
particularly seek comments concerning:
(1) The species' biology, range, and population trends, including:
(a) Habitat requirements for establishment, growth, and
reproduction;
(b) Genetics and taxonomy;
(c) Historical and current range including distribution patterns;
(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and
projected trends; and
(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for the species, its
habitat, or both.
(2) The factors that are the basis for making a listing
determination for a species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C.
1533(a)), which are:
[[Page 64841]]
(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range;
(b) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes;
(c) Disease or predation;
(d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or
(e) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued
existence.
(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning
any threats (or lack thereof) to Vandenberg monkeyflower and
regulations that may be addressing those threats.
(4) Additional information concerning the historical and current
status, range, distribution, and population size of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, including the locations of any additional occurrences of
this species.
(5) Current or planned activities in the areas occupied by
Vandenberg monkeyflower and possible impacts of these activities on
this species and its habitat.
(6) Information on the projected and reasonably likely impacts of
climate change on Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
(7) Information related to our interpretation and analysis of the
best scientific and commercial data and our proposed status
determination for the species.
Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for or
opposition to the action under consideration without providing
supporting information may not meet the standard of information
required by section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act, which requires that
determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened
species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and
commercial data available.''
You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed
rule by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. We request that you
send comments only by the methods described in ADDRESSES.
If you submit information via https://www.regulations.gov, your
entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will
be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy
that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the
top of your document that we withhold this information from public
review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We
will post all hardcopy submissions on https://www.regulations.gov.
Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be
available for public inspection at https://www.regulations.gov, or by
appointment during normal business hours at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Ventura Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Previous Federal Actions
We first identified Vandenberg monkeyflower as a candidate species
in a notice of review published in the Federal Register on November 10,
2010 (75 FR 69222). Vandenberg monkeyflower was given a listing
priority number of 3, which denotes a subspecies [or variety] facing an
imminent threat of high magnitude. Notices of review reconfirming its
candidate status were also published in the Federal Register on October
26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), and November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994). Candidate
taxa are plants and animals for which the Service has sufficient
information on their biological status and threats to propose them as
endangered or threatened under the Act, but for which development of a
proposed listing regulation is precluded by other higher priority
listing activities. We may identify a taxon as a candidate for listing
after we conduct an evaluation of its status on our own initiative, or
after we make a positive finding on a petition to list a species. No
petitions seeking the listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower have been
submitted nor have other Federal reviews been conducted for Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
On May 10, 2011, we filed a multiyear work plan as part of a
proposed settlement agreement with Wild Earth Guardians and others in a
consolidated case in the U.S. District Court for the District of
Columbia. On September 9, 2011, the court accepted our agreement with
plaintiffs in Endangered Species Act Section 4 Deadline Litig., Misc.
Action No. 10-377 (EGS), MDL Docket No. 2165 (D. DC) (known as the
``MDL case'') on a schedule to publish proposed rules or not-warranted
findings for the 251 species designated as candidates in 2010 no later
than September 30, 2016. We are submitting this proposed rule in
compliance with the MDL settlement agreement.
Elsewhere in today's Federal Register, we propose to designate
critical habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower under the Act.
Status Assessment for Vandenberg Monkeyflower
Background
It is our intent to discuss below only those topics directly
relevant to the listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower as endangered in
this section of the proposed rule.
Description and Taxonomy
Vandenberg monkeyflower is a small, annual herbaceous plant that
grows from 0.5 to 10 inches (in) (1.2 to 25.4 centimeters (cm)) tall.
The stems are glandular and usually green with purplish tinting. Leaves
are obovate (narrowly elliptic) and reach 1.2 in (3 cm) in length.
Plants produce a single flower or plants are branched producing
multiple flowers. The tubular yellow flowers are bilaterally
symmetrical, with the distal ends of the petals forming a unique
structure that is likened to a face; hence the common name
monkeyflower. Seed capsules are ovoid and reach 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in
length. The capsule splits open longitudinally from the tip to release
approximately 20 to 100 seeds.
Vandenberg monkeyflower was first described as Mimulus fremontii
(Benth.) A. Gray var. vandenbergensis D.M. Thompson (Thompson 2005, p.
134) as a member of the Scrophulariaceae (figwort family). This is the
name and family placement we have previously followed. Molecular
systematics studies examining members of the Scrophulariaceae,
including Mimulus, determined that this genus and a few others
constituted a separate monophyletic group warranting recognition at the
family rank as Phrymaceae (Beardsley and Olmstead 2002, pp. 1193-1101;
Olmstead 2002, p. 18). Placement of Mimulus in the family Phrymaceae is
recognized by species experts, is used in the recent flora of
California (Thompson 2012, pp. 988-998), and will be treated as such in
the upcoming volume of the Flora of North America.
In 2012, Barker et al. (2012) recognized a redefined genus Diplacus
that includes 46 taxa previously segregated as Mimulus, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower as Diplacus vandenbergensis (D.M. Thompson)
Nesom (Barker et al. 2012, p. 29). The citation in Barker et al. (2012,
p. 29) attributes the nomenclatural combination at the species rank to
Nesom in Phytoneuron 2012-47: 2, which was published electronically on
the same day as Barker et al. (2012). The
[[Page 64842]]
current citation for Vandenberg monkeyflower is at the species rank as
Diplacus vandenbergensis (D.M. Thompson) G.L. Nesom. This combination
is accepted by species and genus experts and will be used in the
upcoming treatment in the Flora of North America. Accordingly, we will
use the correct name (Diplacus vandenbergensis) and family attribution
(Phrymaceae) throughout this and subsequent documents.
Life History
The life history of Vandenberg monkeyflower has not been thoroughly
studied, but certain characteristics appear similar to other small
annual herbs. Vandenberg monkeyflower is shallow-rooted (Thompson 2005,
p.131; Consortium of California Herbaria (Consortium 2010)) and has
seeds that germinate during winter rains, typically between November
and February (Thompson 2005, p. 23), which is similar to other small
annual species that grow in sandy openings in chaparral and are adapted
to the Mediterranean climate zone of California. For instance,
Lessingia glandulifera (lessingia) is an annual herb that grows in
sandy openings in chaparral, is shallow-rooted, and is commonly
associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower (Davis and Mooney 1985, p.
528). Rooting depth is positively related to above-ground size, with
annuals having the smallest above-ground size and rooting depth in the
soil (Schenk and Jackson 2002, pp. 484-485).
Vandenberg monkeyflower is sensitive to annual levels of rainfall
(Thompson 2005, p. 23), and, therefore, germination of resident seed
banks may be low or nonexistent in unfavorable years, with little or no
visible aboveground expression of the species. Many annual monkeyflower
species, including Vandenberg monkeyflower, need early rainfall along
with continued rains in late winter or early spring for a substantial
number of seeds to germinate, and do not respond well when only later
rainfall is available (Thompson 2005, p. 23; Fraga in litt. 2012).
Vandenberg monkeyflower flowers mostly from late March through June
with fruits maturing from late April through July (Thompson 2005, p.
130).
Seed banks develop when a plant produces more viable seeds than
germinate in any given year. Seed banks contribute to the long-term
persistence of a species by sustaining them through periods when
conditions are not conducive to adequately germinate, reproduce, and
replenish the seed bank (such as when there is not sufficient rainfall
for plants to germinate, grow, and produce enough seeds to maintain the
population at the same size from year to year) (Rees and Long 1992,
entire; Adams et al. 2005, pp. 432-434; Satterthwaite et al. 2007,
entire). The annual differences in the numbers and location of
aboveground plants indicate the presence of a seed bank.
The reproductive biology of Vandenberg monkeyflower has not been
specifically studied; however, it is likely similar to closely related
Diplacus species that occur in similar habitats. In general, annual
species of Diplacus are self-compatible (able to be fertilized by its
own pollen) but are also visited by a wide array of pollinators, which
results in a mixed mating system that utilizes both self-fertilization
and cross-fertilization (Sutherland and Vickery 1988, p. 334; Leclerc-
Potvin and Ritland 1994, pp. 201-204; Fraga in litt. 2012). The large
size of the flower relative to the size of the plant suggests that
Vandenberg monkeyflower is allocating significant resources into
attracting pollinators; therefore, this species is thought to typically
breed through outcrossing, and is dependent on pollinators to achieve
seed production (Fraga in litt. 2012).
Species of Diplacus are predominantly bee-pollinated, although the
genus also includes species that are pollinated by hummingbirds, hawk
moths (Sphingidae), beeflies (Bombyliidae), and other flies (order
Diptera) (Wu et al. 2008, p. 224). Species of bees that have been
observed to visit flowers of Vandenberg monkeyflower include sweat bees
(Dufourea versatilis rubriventris), miner bees (Perdita nitens,
Caliopsis [Nomadopsis] fracta and C. Nomadopsis trifolii), mason bees
(Hoplitis product bernardina), and leaf-cutter bees (Anthidium
collectum, Chelostoma cockerelli, C. minutum, C. phaceliae,
Chelostomopsis rubifloris, and Ashmeadiella timberlakei timberlakei)
(Krombein et al. 1979, pp. 1863-2030; Bugguide 2012; The Xerces Society
2012). Additionally, Inouye (in litt. 2012) observed that small
solitary bees were the most common pollinators on three other species
of small annual monkeyflower species from dry and mesic habitats (D.
androsaceus, D. angustatus, and D. douglasii); and Fraga (in litt.
2012) has observed halictid bees (Halictidae) on other small
monkeyflower species.
Seeds of Vandenberg monkeyflower are small and light in weight,
dispersing primarily by gravity and also by water and wind over
relatively short distances (Thompson 2005, p. 130; Fraga in litt.
2012). The small size of the seed makes it likely that short-distance
dispersal could also be facilitated by ants, as has been noted for
other small-seeded plant taxa (Cain et al. 1998, pp. 328-330). Given
that the Burton Mesa area is subject to occasional high winds (see
discussion in Climate section below), long-distance dispersal likely
occurs during these wind events. Wind dispersal results in a random
dispersal of seeds, some of which fall into suitable habitat and some
do not.
Geographic Setting
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs only at low elevations and close to
the coast in a distinct region in western Santa Barbara County known as
Burton Mesa (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2). Burton Mesa is a
physiographic region situated between the Purisima Hills to the north
and the Santa Ynez River to the south. The topography of Burton Mesa
comprises a low, flat-topped series of hills averaging 400 feet (ft)
(133 meters (m)) in elevation (Ferren et al. 1984, p. 3; Dibblee 1988).
Level upland expanses from 328 to 394 ft (100 to 120 m) above sea level
are dissected by streams that have formed wide valleys with short steep
slopes (Davis 1987, p. 318). Underlying this region is the Burton Mesa
dune sheet, which extends from Shuman Canyon on Vandenberg Air Force
Base (AFB) in the north, roughly southeast along the southern slopes of
the Purisima Hills and eastward to a point approximately 22 mi (35 km)
from the present shoreline in the Santa Ynez River Valley (Cooper 1967,
pp. 89-91; Hunt 1993, pp. 8-9).
Climate
Burton Mesa experiences a Mediterranean climate, with mild, moist
winters and moderately warm, rainless summers. The region is strongly
influenced by the prevailing westerly transoceanic air currents. Late
afternoon and early evening are often characterized by onshore breezes
or winds during most of the year, but winds are strongest and
persistent in late spring and early summer. A marine layer or fog
characterizes this coastal region and is heaviest during late spring
and early summer mornings. Frost is also a regular occurrence in
winter, especially in low-lying areas (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 39).
Habitat
Burton Mesa supports a mosaic of several native vegetation types,
including maritime chaparral, maritime chaparral mixed with coastal
scrub, oak woodland, and small patches of native grasslands (Wilken and
Wardlaw 2010,
[[Page 64843]]
p. 2). The maritime chaparral on Burton Mesa is referred to as Burton
Mesa chaparral (Odion et al. 1992, pp. 5-6; Sawyer et al. 2009, p.
376), and is dominated by evergreen shrubs and scattered multi-trunked
Quercus agrifolia (coast live oak) that form open stands to almost
impenetrable thickets over large areas of Burton Mesa, with heights
reaching up to 13 ft (4 m) (Gevirtz et al. 2007, pp. 95-96). The
dominant endemic species of Burton Mesa chaparral include Ceanothus
(Ceanothus impressus var. impressus (Santa Barbara ceanothus) and C.
cuneatus var. fascicularis (Lompoc ceanothus)) and Arctostaphylos
(Arctostaphylos purissima (Purisima manzanita) and A. rudis (shagbark
manzanita)), along with the more widespread Adenostoma fasciculatum
(chamise), Heteromeles arbutifolia (toyon), Cercocarpus betuloides
(birchleaf mountain mahogany), Salvia mellifera (black sage), and
Rhamnus californica (California coffeeberry).
Coast live oak is an important dominant in many places on Burton
Mesa, attaining 40 to 70 percent crown cover in older undisturbed
patches of habitat. Ericameria ericoides (mock heather), with its wind-
dispersed seeds, is most often observed at trail edges in dense
chaparral, but appears in greater numbers in large open areas and
coastal scrub (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 96). Annual grassland and
coastal sage scrub characterized by mock heather, Artemisia californica
(California sagebrush), and Baccharis pilularis (coyote brush) occur on
formerly cleared sites and on xeric (dry) slopes. Some poorly drained
upland sites in the central and western portions of Burton Mesa form
seasonal wetlands characterized by native perennial grasses such as
Elymus glaucus (blue wildrye) and vernal pool species including
Eryngium armatum (coastal button-celery) (Davis et al. 1988, p. 172).
The vegetation transitions to coastal sage scrub habitat as it nears
the ocean and into other terrestrial habitats east of Purisima Canyon
on the eastern side of La Purisima Mission State Historic Park (SHP)
(Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 86). The edaphic (soil) variable with the
greatest effect on vegetation composition is the depth of soil
overlying the bedrock or subsoil pan (Davis et al. 1988, p. 188). Soils
on Burton Mesa become very shallow toward the north and west, and
chaparral shrubs decrease in height and density with decreasing soil
depth (Odion et al. 1992, p. 6).
Vandenberg monkeyflower does not grow beneath the canopy of shrubs
or oaks, but rather in the sandy openings (canopy gaps) that occur in-
between shrubs. Sandy openings have been noted for their high abundance
and diversity of annual and perennial herbaceous species, compared to
those found in the understory of the shrub canopy (Hickson 1987, Davis
et al. 1989; Keeley et al. 1981; Horton and Kraebel 1955). Vandenberg
monkeyflower is currently known to occur within sandy openings at nine
extant locations; one additional location is potentially extirpated
(see Distribution of Vandenberg Monkeyflower below). Because portions
of Burton Mesa are inaccessible and difficult to survey, Vandenberg
monkeyflower has the potential to occur in areas where it has not yet
been observed within sandy openings. However, not all sandy openings
within the shrub canopy appear to be currently suitable for Vandenberg
monkeyflower because some of the sandy openings consist of sands that
structurally seem more consolidated and currently do not support this
species (Rutherford in litt. 2012). To date, all of the extant
occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower are within sandy openings where
the structure of the sands appears loose (Rutherford in litt. 2012).
The amount of Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat currently
available has changed over time. Prior to 1938, approximately 23,550 ac
(9,350 ha) of maritime chaparral was present on Burton Mesa (Hickson
1987, p. 34). For the purposes of this analysis, we determined in 2012
that approximately 10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of maritime chaparral habitat
remain on Burton Mesa, which represents a loss of 53 percent of the
original upland habitat (Figure 1; Service 2012a, unpublished data). We
then estimated the amount of Burton Mesa considered as sandy openings
where Vandenberg monkeyflower could potentially occur. Based on
inspection of color imagery (National Agriculture Imagery Program
(NAIP) 2009) of areas within Burton Mesa where this species occurs, we
used the range of image pixel values among 20 point locations to define
bare ground while all other pixel values defined vegetated areas. We
calculated the total area encompassed by bare ground and vegetation by
multiplying the number of bare ground and vegetated pixels by 1 square
meter (the ground resolution of a pixel in the NAIP data). Roads,
buried pipeline rights-of-way, and building footprints were removed to
estimate the percent of Burton Mesa that currently comprise sandy
openings.
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Results indicate up to approximately 20 percent of the total area
of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral comprises sandy openings, which is a
high estimate because this may include areas of bare ground that are
not sandy openings suitable for Vandenberg monkeyflower, such as
walking trails (Service 2012b, unpublished data). The percentage
[[Page 64845]]
would likely change over time depending on whether chaparral stands
continue to age and increase in canopy cover, or are burned to
temporarily increase the amount of sandy openings. Additionally, the
location of sandy openings on Burton Mesa would likely shift over time
because individual shrubs continue to mature and increase in cover or
die, creating temporary gaps in the shrub canopy.
The structure of Burton Mesa chaparral comprises a mosaic of
vegetation patches interspersed with sandy openings that varies from
place to place. Within a given substrate, the chaparral composition is
a reflection of stand age or shrub canopy cover, disturbance history
(whether the area was cleared in the past or nonnative species were
planted), history of wildfire, and distance from the coast (Davis et
al. 1988, p. 188; Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 97). Although the sandy
openings that Vandenberg monkeyflower occupies are only a small percent
of the total amount of Burton Mesa chaparral habitat, because the sandy
openings and vegetation form a mosaic vegetation community that
structurally may vary over time, it is impossible to separate out the
sandy openings from the rest of the Burton Mesa chaparral vegetation.
Therefore, for the purposes of this rule, we consider suitable
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat to consist of Burton Mesa chaparral,
which would include the sandy openings and the dominant vegetation that
characterize this vegetation community.
Other low-growing native annual species that often co-occur with
Vandenberg monkeyflower in sandy openings include: Mucronea californica
(California spineflower); Castillleja exserta (purple owl's clover);
Logfia filaginoides (California filago); Lessingia glandulifera
(lessingia); Layia glandulosa (white tidy tips); Chaenactis
glabriuscula (pincushion); and Plantago erecta (plantain). Frequently
co-occurring herbaceous native perennial species include Horkelia
cuneata (horkelia) and Croton californicus (croton) (Meyer in litt.
2010a). Nonnative annual and perennial species are also known to occur
in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Nonnative annual species include
(but are not limited to) Bromus diandrus (ripgut brome) and Hypochaeris
glabra (smooth cat's-ear) (Meyer in litt. 2010a). Nonnative perennial
species include: Ehrharta calycina (South African perennial veldt grass
(veldt grass)), Carpobrotus edulis (iceplant), Brassica tournefortii
(Sahara mustard), and Cortaderia jubata (pampas grass).
Land Ownership
The western portion of Burton Mesa is Federal land within
Vandenberg AFB (Davis et al. 1988, p. 170). Vandenberg AFB contains
approximately 99,000 acres (ac) (40,064 hectares (ha)); approximately
8,114 ac (3,284 ha) is maritime chaparral mixed with coastal sage
scrub, veldt grass, pampas grass, herbs, and coast live oak on Burton
Mesa within Base boundaries (Air Force 2011c, Appendix A--Figure 5-3;
Lum in litt. 2012d). Vandenberg AFB is managed by the U.S. Air Force.
To the east of Vandenberg AFB, the State of California received
5,078 ac (2,055 ha) from Union Oil Company in 1990 as part of a
settlement of two antitrust lawsuits (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 2). The
land acquired by the State formed the Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
(Reserve) and encompasses most of the maritime chaparral that occurs to
the east of Vandenberg AFB (Odion et al. 1992, p. 6). The western
boundary of the Reserve abuts the eastern boundary of Vandenberg AFB
and is delineated by a 100-ft (30-m) wide fuel break (a gap in
vegetation designed to act as a barrier to slow progress of a potential
wildfire). Additional lands have since been added to the Reserve since
1990, bringing its total acreage to 5,186 ac (2,099 ha) (Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 3). The Reserve contains five management units (Vandenberg,
Santa Lucia, Purisima Hills, Encina, and La Purisima) and is situated
on the eastern Burton Mesa and foothills of the Purisima Hills (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 7). The Reserve is managed by the California Department
of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW). CDFW was formerly California Department of
Fish and Game (CDFG), and because historic documents prior to 2013 use
this old name, the abbreviations CDFG and CDFW will both be used
interchangeably for references cited throughout the remainder of this
document.
Residential communities such as Vandenberg Village, Clubhouse
Estates, Mesa Oaks, and Mission Hills fragment (divide into small
noncontiguous pieces) the Reserve and other non-Federal lands on Burton
Mesa. The southern portion of the mesa and beyond the southern boundary
of the Reserve comprises agricultural lands as well as land owned by
the Department of Justice (which houses the U.S. Bureau of Prisons
Federal Penitentiary Complex at Lompoc (Lompoc Penitentiary)). The
jagged northern perimeter of Burton Mesa is adjacent to an active oil
field operated by Plains Exploration and Production Company (PXP).
To the east of the Reserve, La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
(SHP) contains 980 ac (397 ha) (California State Parks 1991, p. 9) and
is separated from the Reserve by the residential communities of Mesa
Oaks and Mission Hills. La Purisima Mission SHP also abuts the southern
boundary of the La Purisima Management Unit of the Reserve. California
State Parks manages La Purisima Mission SHP.
Distribution of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
For the purposes of this rule, we define the following terms to
refer to individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower and where they occur.
We use the term ``occurrence'' (consistent with the definition for
``element occurrence'' used by the California Natural Diversity Data
Base (CNDDB)) to be a grouping of plants (individuals) within 0.25 mi
(0.4 km) proximity (CNDDB 2010). There may be one or more discrete
groupings of plants (individuals) within a single occurrence. We use
the term ``location'' to refer only to a particular site, area, or
region, as in ``at that location,'' with no relation to an assemblage
of plants (e.g., polygon, occurrence, population).
We generally describe the area on Burton Mesa where Vandenberg
monkeyflower currently occurs as a crescent-shaped area approximately 7
mi (10.7 km) long by 2 mi (3.0 km) wide. All extant individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower are located within this area (Consortium)
2010), almost exclusively occurring on thin layers of aeolian- (wind-)
deposited sands between approximately 100 and 400 ft (30 to 122 m) in
elevation (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2). We based the description of
suitable habitat on viewing U.S. Geological Survey maps and Google
Earth(copyright), and looking at how the occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower were spread across the landscape. We did not
analyze biological factors such as vegetation or soil type when
describing this general area where the species occurs. A discussion of
where Vandenberg monkeyflower has been historically observed and where
it is currently known to occur follows below. Additionally, Figure 2
includes the known distribution of Vandenberg monkeyflower across its
range based on the most recent survey data; Table 1 lists the names of
the occurrences, land ownership, and status of each known and
historical occurrence.
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Historical Locations
We are aware of historical herbarium collections of Vandenberg
monkeyflower from two locations; one of these (Santa Rita Valley) no
longer supports habitat for this species (Consortium 2010), and we
consider it to be extirpated. The second collection was made from Lower
Pine Canyon; although plants have not been relocated at lower Pine
Canyon, we consider this collection to be a part of the Pine Canyon
occurrence, which is extant. In addition to these two collections, an
[[Page 64847]]
historical occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower was observed, but not
collected, from Lower Santa Lucia Canyon; we consider it to be
potentially extirpated. Additional detail on the occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at these three historical locations is provided
below.
The first historical collection of Vandenberg monkeyflower was made
in 1931 from the Santa Ynez Valley approximately 5 mi (8 km) west of
Buellton along State Highway 246 and east of La Purisima (Consortium
2010; Santa Barbara Botanic Garden (SBBG) 2005). This site was surveyed
multiple times in 2006 (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, Appendix 2); however,
no Vandenberg monkeyflower were seen. At some point prior to 1931, seed
from Burton Mesa may have blown downwind to this location, but it
appears that Vandenberg monkeyflower has been extirpated at this
location because no suitable habitat remains due to agricultural
conversion (including vineyards and berries (Elvin 2009, pers. obs.)
and heavily grazed pastureland (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, Appendix 2).
Therefore, we consider the occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower to be
extirpated from this location.
The second historical collection of Vandenberg monkeyflower was
made in 1960 near lower Pine Canyon (part of the existing Pine Canyon
occurrence) on the eastern edge of Vandenberg AFB (Jepson Herbarium
2006; Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 2006). Vandenberg monkeyflower
had not been documented since it was collected there in 1960; however,
it was observed in 2010 and 2012 up-canyon from this historical
location (Lum in litt. 2012a, Rutherford in litt. 2012) where suitable
habitat remains. (See further discussion of Pine Canyon in Current
Locations section below). The description of the location of this
historical occurrence is not precise enough to determine that the
location is distinct from, and not part of, the location where an
extant occurrence was observed in 2010 and 2012 in upper Pine Canyon
(See Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB section below). Therefore,
we consider the historical occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower to be
part of the extant Pine Canyon occurrence.
The third historical location of Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed, but not collected, in 1985 in the southwestern portion of the
Vandenberg Management Unit on the Reserve (Hickson in litt. 2007).
Although no collection was made, we have a high confidence in the
accuracy of the observation (known as the Lower Santa Lucia Canyon
occurrence; Figure 2) because it was made during the course of a
vegetation study for a master's thesis (Hickson in litt. 2007). The
location had not been searched for the species between 1985 and 2011;
in 2012 (a low rainfall year), CDFW staff (Meyer) conducted a cursory
survey and was unable to relocate the species (Meyer in litt. 2012c).
Because it has been approximately 30 years (albeit with little survey
effort between 1985 and 2011) since it was last observed, and suitable
habitat remains but is overcrowded with invasive, nonnative plants (see
Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants), we consider the occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at this historical location to be potentially
extirpated.
Current Status of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
Because we do not have a wealth of survey data over multiple years
to analyze a trend in the long-term persistence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, we consider it most appropriate to use suitable habitat
trends as a surrogate for the species' trend. Thus, an increase or
decrease in the amount of suitable habitat likely results in a
respective increase or decrease in the Vandenberg monkeyflower
population.
Surveys for Vandenberg monkeyflower have occurred across this
species' range on Burton Mesa during recent years, although the level
of effort and precision of the surveys varied between the different
biologists who conducted surveys. In 2006, the first year that a
concerted effort was made to survey most of the known locations,
approximately 2,700 individuals were observed during surveys throughout
the known range of the species (Ballard 2006; Wilken and Wardlaw 2010,
pp. 2-3, Appendices 1, 2). In 2010, the Air Force observed
approximately 5,200 individuals during surveys conducted on 376 ac (152
ha) within Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2012).
In other years, individuals and agencies (including Air Force,
CDFW, and our biologists) have conducted opportunistic surveys of
specific sites where this species occurs, but rangewide surveys have
not been conducted since 2006. Ballard (in litt. 2009) searched for
Vandenberg monkeyflower in areas between extant occurrences and on the
periphery of the plant's known distribution but found no plants.
Additionally, the species has not been observed in some areas with
sandy openings that appear to be suitable habitat (Ballard in litt.
2009). These areas: (1) Appear slightly degraded, even though many
species commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower were often
abundant; (2) contain small pockets of sandy openings, but the sands
did not appear to contain a loose enough structure to support
Vandenberg monkeyflower; or (3) harbor a dominant amount of invasive,
nonnative plants within sandy openings. The ability for Vandenberg
monkeyflower to grow in sandy openings may depend upon the stand age
and disturbance history of the location, as well as edaphic factors
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 188), along with the amount of rainfall, size of
the seed bank, and competition with invasive, nonnative plants.
The following sections provide a description of nine specific
locations (which contain all extant occurrences identified in Figure 2)
where Vandenberg monkeyflower is known to occur, hereby referred to as
nine occurrences. All known occurrences are on the following lands:
Vandenberg AFB (four occurrences), Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
(three occurrences), and La Purisima Mission SHP (two occurrences) (See
Figure 2; Table 1).
Table 1--Vandenberg Monkeyflower Locations, Land Ownership, and Current
Status
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vandenberg monkeyflower
locations Land ownership Current status
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Current Locations
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Oak Canyon................... Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
2. Pine Canyon (includes Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
historical location in lower
Pine Canyon).
3. Lake Canyon.................. Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
4. Santa Lucia Canyon........... Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
5. Volans Avenue................ Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve.
[[Page 64848]]
6. Clubhouse Estates............ Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve and
Private lands.
7. Davis Creek.................. Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve.
8. La Purisima West............. La Purisima Extant.
Mission State
Historic Park.
9. La Purisima East............. La Purisima Extant.
Mission State
Historic Park.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Historical Locations
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Santa Rita Valley............... Private lands..... Extirpated.
Lower Santa Lucia Canyon........ Burton Mesa Potentially
Ecological Extirpated.
Reserve.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB
There are four locations on Vandenberg AFB that are known to
support occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. We refer to these four
locations as the Oak, Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyons occurrences.
(1) Oak Canyon. Vandenberg monkeyflower was reported as common in
the late 1980s or early 1990s (Odion in litt. 2006) at the mouth of Oak
Canyon on the eastern edge of the Base. Four individuals were found in
2006 (Ventura Fish and Wildlife Herbarium (VFWO) 2013). Although no
plants were found in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in litt.
2012b; Rutherford in litt. 2012), as discussed above in the
Background--Life History section, we consider the species to be extant
at this location because it has only been 7 years since individuals
were last seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank is still
present.
(2) Pine Canyon. Approximately 365 individuals were present in
multiple scattered occurrences in upper Pine Canyon in 2010 (Lum in
litt. 2012b), and approximately 100 individuals were observed in 2012
(Rutherford in litt. 2012).
(3) Lake Canyon. This occurrence contains the greatest number of
individuals throughout this species' range and accounts for most of the
individuals on Vandenberg AFB. Approximately 1,500 individuals were
observed in 2006 and 1,000 individuals in 2007 (Elvin in litt. 2009;
VFWO 2013). The most recent surveys in Lake Canyon occurred in 2010 and
documented approximately 4,817 individuals (Lum in litt. 2012b),
although these surveys likely included a larger portion of the canyon
than surveys conducted in 2006 and 2007. Even though surveys have not
occurred at this location since 2010, plants were also observed at
several sites in Lake Canyon in 2012. Therefore, we consider the
species to be extant at this location (Rutherford in litt. 2012). A
seed bank is likely present.
(4) Santa Lucia Canyon. This canyon is located on the eastern edge
of Vandenberg AFB at the junction of Santa Lucia and Lakes Canyons and
abuts the Reserve that lies to the east. Approximately 25 individuals
were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and 1 individual was observed in
2010 (Lum in litt. 2012b). Although surveys have not occurred at this
location since 2010, we consider the species to be extant at this
location because it has only been 3 years since the species was last
seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank is still present.
Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs or partially occurs (i.e., part of
the occurrence is on the Reserve and part of the occurrence is off the
Reserve) at three locations within the Reserve. We refer to these
locations as the Volans Avenue, Clubhouse Estates, and Davis Creek
occurrences.
(5) Volans Avenue. Individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower have been
observed in the Santa Lucia Management Unit of the Reserve immediately
west of Volans Avenue, between a portion of Vandenberg Village and
California State Highway 1. The Santa Lucia Management Unit abuts the
eastern boundary of Vandenberg AFB. Five plants were observed in 2003,
and one plant was observed in 2007 (Meyer in litt. 2007). In the other
years between 2004 and 2006, and in 2009, no plants were found (Meyer
in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007; Meyer in litt. 2009a). Although
no surveys have occurred since 2009, we consider the species to be
extant at this location because it has only been 6 years since
individuals were last seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank
is still present.
(6) Clubhouse Estates. Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs east of
Vandenberg Village on both the privately owned Clubhouse Estates
residential development project site, which has ongoing but differing
levels of development since 2006, and an adjacent portion of the Encina
Management Unit of the Reserve. Prior to 2006, most of the plants
occurred on private property at the Clubhouse Estates project site
(Scientific Applications International Corporation (SAIC) 2005b, Figure
4.3-2). Approximately 100-285 individuals were observed in 2006 (Wilken
and Wardlaw 2010, Appendices 1, 2), and approximately 350-400
individuals were observed in 2009 (McGowan in litt. 2009). Although no
surveys have occurred since 2009, we consider the species to be extant
at this location because it has only been 4 years since individuals
were last seen, and it is likely that both plants and a residual seed
bank are present.
(7) Davis Creek. Vandenberg monkeyflower is located along the
western border of the Encina Management Unit of the Reserve and a
right-of-way (ROW) for California State Highway 1 managed by the
California Department of Transportation. Davis Creek is east of
Vandenberg Village and less than 1 mi (1.6 km) south of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals at Clubhouse Estates.
The Davis Creek occurrence comprises four locations where
Vandenberg monkeyflower has been observed. At ``west of Highway 1,''
researchers reported 3 individuals in 2006 (Ballard 2006),
approximately 100 in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in litt. 2009), and
60 in 2010 (Meyer in litt. 2010a). At ``north of Burton Mesa
Boulevard,'' four individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and
seven individuals were observed in 2010 (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Subsequently, 180 individuals were observed in 2010 at a third location
east of the Vandenberg Village Community Services District Pump Station
and between Highway 1 and Burton Mesa Boulevard (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Similarly, approximately 500
[[Page 64849]]
individuals were observed in 2010 at a fourth location northwest of the
location where 180 individuals were observed in 2010, and to the west
of the 7 individuals observed in 2010 that were located north of the
Burton Mesa Boulevard. Individuals were also observed at several of
these locations in 2012 and 2013. We consider the species to be extant
at this location because individuals have been seen as recently as 2013
(Meyer in litt. 2013).
Occurrences Located on La Purisima Mission SHP
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs at two separate locations within La
Purisima Mission SHP. We refer to these locations of Vandenberg
monkeyflower as the La Purisima West and La Purisima East occurrences.
(8) La Purisima West. Vandenberg monkeyflower that occur on the
west side of the park are located in a discrete location. Approximately
300 individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and approximately
1,500 individuals were observed in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in
litt. 2009). Subsequently, individuals were observed here in 2010 and
2011 but not counted (Rutherford in litt. 2012). Although no
observations have occurred since 2011, we consider the species to be
extant at this location because it has been only 2 years since
individuals were last observed (although not counted), and it is likely
that both plants and a residual seed bank are present.
(9) La Purisima East. Vandenberg monkeyflower that occur on the
east side of the park are made up of hundreds of scattered individuals.
Approximately 850 individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006) and
approximately 400 individuals were observed in 2009 (Rutherford and
Ballard in litt. 2009). Although no surveys have occurred since 2009,
we consider the species to be extant at this location because it has
been only 4 years since individuals were last seen, and it is likely
that both plants and a residual seed bank are present.
Summary--Distribution and Status of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
In summary, we identified one extirpated location where Vandenberg
monkeyflower no longer exists, one location that is considered
potentially extirpated, and nine locations where Vandenberg
monkeyflower is currently considered extant on Burton Mesa. Most of
these extant locations contain multiple scattered individuals, and thus
we refer to these areas as nine occurrences, as defined above. We
generally characterized the size of Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences
based on multiple observations over a period of years. Two of the nine
occurrences (22 percent; Lake Canyon and La Purisima West) each
contained over 1,000 individuals in multiple years and are the two
largest known occurrences of this species. These largest occurrences
include a high of approximately 1,500 individuals at Lake Canyon in
2006 (Elvin in litt. 2009; VFWO 2013) and 1,500 individuals at La
Purisima West in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in litt. 2009). Four
occurrences (44 percent; Pine Canyon, Clubhouse Estates, Davis Creek,
and La Purisima East) each contained hundreds of plants ranging between
100 and 850 individuals in multiple years. Finally, three occurrences
(33 percent; Oak Canyon, Santa Lucia Canyon, and Volans Avenue) are the
smallest, with a range of no individuals observed in most years
surveyed (Volans Avenue) to a high of 25 individuals observed in 2006
(Santa Lucia Canyon). Although trend data are not available, these data
indicate that the aboveground expression of Vandenberg monkeyflower for
7 of the 9 occurrences (78 percent) harbor 850 or fewer individuals.
Because we have only one rangewide survey for this species, and
because based on our current data and the likelihood that Vandenberg
monkeyflower forms a seed bank and expresses variable numbers of
aboveground individuals from year to year (see Background--Life History
section above), we are unable to determine a trend in the Vandenberg
monkeyflower population. Therefore, we will use trends in the amount of
suitable habitat as a surrogate for the species' trend.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and
Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based
on any of the following five factors: (A) The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be
warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in
combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.
Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range
Factor A threats to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat include
development (military, State lands, and residential), utility
maintenance and miscellaneous activities, invasive, nonnative plants,
anthropogenic (influenced by human-caused activity) fire, recreation,
and climate change. These impact categories overlap or act in concert
with each other to adversely affect Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Development--Military
Development of Vandenberg AFB military facilities within the last
century directly removed approximately 6,104 ac (2,470 ha) of Burton
Mesa chaparral habitat. Approximately 40 percent of the chaparral that
historically occurred on Vandenberg AFB remains, mostly south and east
of the primary developed area on Vandenberg AFB (Odion et al. 1992, p.
12). West of the developed area has been impacted by numerous trails,
roads, and other ground disturbances. Much of the chaparral habitat
that once existed to the north of the primary developed area was
cultivated or type-converted (disturbance resulting in a new dominant
plant community) to rangeland prior to military use. Areas that
historically consisted of chaparral vegetation have regenerated to
nonnative grassland, usually with shrubs, and are no longer considered
suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower. This nonnative grassland
is dominated by veldt grass and several species of nonnative annual
grasses including Bromus spp. (bromes), Avena spp. (oatgrass), and
Vulpia spp. (silvergrass) (Odion et al. 1992, p. 11).
The Air Force maintains multiple launch facilities at Vandenberg
AFB to accomplish their mission (Air Force 2011c, p. 7). There are no
launch facilities in suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower, and
the Air Force is not likely to construct new launch facilities within
suitable habitat because potential construction would likely occur near
the coastline and away from more inland, human-populated areas (Air
Force 2009a, p. 16). Additionally, the siting of future facilities is
expected to capitalize on existing infrastructure; therefore,
disturbance in undeveloped areas would be minimized (Air Force 2009a,
p. 32).
[[Page 64850]]
Development--State Lands
Prior to the State Lands Commission acquisition of the Reserve
lands in 1990, four land uses were identified in the Reserve area,
including agricultural operations, military operations, extractive
industries, and urban development (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 54). The
Reserve encompasses 5,186 ac (2,099 ha) and there has been no threat
from new development. However, local governmental agencies and public
utility companies maintain existing utilities and easements throughout
the Reserve (see Factor A--Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities below).
La Purisima Mission SHP has operated as a State Park since 1937
(California State Parks 1991, p. 107). The current park boundaries
encompass a total of 1,900 ac (769 ha). The park unit consists of the
historical area, natural area with riding and hiking trails,
agriculture, and the maintenance/service and residential area. The
total amount of native vegetation is approximately 1,770 ac (716 ha)
(Service 2013, unpublished data). There is no current or future threat
of habitat destruction from development at La Purisima Mission SHP
because the park was established to preserve cultural and natural
features of the area.
Development--Private Lands
Three residential communities exist on Burton Mesa east of
Vandenberg AFB's boundary including Vandenberg Village, Mission Hills,
and Mesa Oaks. These communities harbor associated infrastructure
(including major roads such as California State Highway 1, Harris Grade
Road, Rucker Road, and Burton Mesa Boulevard), all of which fragment
the Burton Mesa chaparral. Vandenberg Village and associated golf
course comprise approximately 720 ac (291 ha). Thus, at least 2,000 ac
(809 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral habitat were removed as a result of
past development of these three residential communities and their
associated infrastructure.
Presented below are three currently approved or proposed projects
on private lands that harbor suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Data are not available on the specific acreage of sandy openings
expected to be lost as a result of these projects, but data are
provided on the loss of Burton Mesa chaparral and the number of
individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower observed at, or adjacent to,
these project sites.
(1) Clubhouse Estates is a private development located east of
Vandenberg Village (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1). Santa Barbara County
approved the Clubhouse Estates housing development in August 2005
(County of Santa Barbara Planning Commission 2005, p. 4). Approximately
33 ac (13 ha) were proposed to be developed into residential lots; the
remaining 120 ac (49 ha) was proposed as open space (LFR, Inc. 2006, p.
1). Most of the Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals known to occur at
this location were inside or within 10 ft (3 m) of the approved
development footprint that was graded (SAIC 2005b, Figure 4.3-2).
Additionally, the ground disturbance increased the extent of invasive,
nonnative species at this location, particularly Sahara mustard and
veldt grass (Meyer in litt. 2010b).
(2) The Burton Ranch Specific Plan site (Burton Ranch) is located
south of the Encina Management Unit of the Reserve. The project was
approved in 2006 (City of Lompoc 2012) and totals 149 ac (60 ha).
Approximately 83 ac (34 ha) of Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat
would be removed (SAIC 2005a, p. 175). Vandenberg monkeyflower has not
been observed at this site, although the habitat contains many species
commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower (SAIC 2005a, p. 174),
and veldt grass is present within the project site. Ground disturbance
expected as a result of this approved project would remove native
vegetation and may create open areas where veldt grass could invade
(see Factor A--Invasive Nonnnative Species below).
A 100-ft (30-m) buffer at the northern boundary of the project site
and 8 ac (3 ha) of onsite open space were proposed as part of the
Burton Ranch project (SAIC 2005a). Preserving chaparral may reduce the
potential of nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa
chaparral in the Reserve directly to the north of this project site.
Additionally, the project proponent completed a conservation agreement
with the Land Trust for Santa Barbara County (Land Trust) to mitigate
for the removal of native vegetation (Feeney in litt. 2012). The
conservation area is known as the Burton Ranch Chaparral Preserve and
encompasses 95 ac (38 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral near Vandenberg
Village.
(3) Allan Hancock College proposed to develop a public safety
complex adjacent to their existing facilities and south of the Davis
Creek corridor (Allan Hancock College 2009, p. 28). The project site
would remove approximately 59 ac (16 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral
(Allan Hancock College 2009, pp. 134-135). Vandenberg monkeyflower has
not been observed within this project site, although a few individuals
were observed in 2009 within the chaparral vegetation (Allan Hancock
College 2009, p. 113). Therefore, ground disturbance would remove
suitable Burton Mesa chaparral and may create open areas for veldt
grass to invade. As part of this project, Allan Hancock College
proposed to preserve approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of Burton Mesa
chaparral near the Davis Creek drainage that is contiguous with the
northern portion of the project site (Allan Hancock College 2009, pp.
9, 135). Preserving chaparral in this area may reduce the potential of
nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa chaparral in the
Reserve to the north of this project site.
In summary, the majority of development on Vandenberg AFB and the
residential communities of Vandenberg Village, Mission Hills, and Mesa
Oaks, and the existing infrastructure at La Purisima Mission SHP have
existed for decades. Most of Burton Mesa is either State or Federal
land on which future development is unlikely; therefore, most of the
remaining habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower would not be directly
impacted by future development. However, three recent private
developments on the periphery of the State or Federal land either have
resulted in or will result in the direct loss of Burton Mesa chaparral.
Development within or adjacent to suitable chaparral habitat increases
the likelihood of introducing invasive, nonnative species to spread,
which is the most significant threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower (see
Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants). Available conservation measures
to minimize the threat of development are discussed below, see Factor
A--Conservation Measures Undertaken.
Utility and Pipeline Maintenance
Utility and pipeline structures occur within the Reserve on Burton
Mesa. These existing facilities or structures at times require
maintenance to ensure proper operation. As a result, vehicles and foot
traffic could occur at or adjacent to these structures and potentially
result in trampling of habitat and other soil surface disturbance,
which in turn could result in ground disturbance that removes Burton
Mesa chaparral and creates open areas in the vegetation that act as
pathways for nonnative plants to expand or invade.
Plains Exploration and Production Company (PXP) owns an oil
processing plant surrounded by the La Purisima Management Unit of the
Reserve (see Land Ownership section above), and requires access to
their operation across Reserve lands north of the La Purisima
[[Page 64851]]
and Santa Lucia Management Units. Eighteen separate easements and 5
connector easements are used to maintain, repair, replace, and install
roads and access power lines, utility lines, and pipelines (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 12). These easements are generally 50 ft (15 m) wide and
vary in length. Additionally, PXP operates a triplet pipeline that is
located within the 100-ft- (30-m-) wide fuel break between the
Vandenberg AFB boundary and the western edge of the Reserve. Plains
Exploration & Production routinely conducts maintenance of this
pipeline that includes excavating trenches alongside the pipeline to
perform the necessary inspections and repairs. The Oak Canyon
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower on Vandenberg AFB is partially
located within the pipeline's footprint. No monkeyflower individuals
have been observed in Oak Canyon recently, and veldt grass has filled
almost every opening in the scrub in Oak Canyon (Rutherford in litt.
2012) (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Species). The Santa Lucia
Canyon occurrence is adjacent to, but not within the pipeline corridor.
Actions within PXP's pipeline footprint may result in ground
disturbances that create openings for nonnative plants to invade and
outcompete native vegetation. However, there is no indication that
maintenance of PXP's pipeline in this area has affected Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat.
The Reserve contains a limited number of existing structures, most
of which are remnants of previous land uses. Local land use agencies
and public works agencies retain utilities and pipelines, and easements
for access; routine maintenance of the utilities is conducted as
needed. The Vandenberg Village Community Services District (VVCSD) has
several structures (including water tanks, a water processing plant,
wells, and water lines and sewer lines) located within the Reserve
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower
at Volans Avenue is adjacent to a sewer line easement held by the
VVCSD. A portion of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrence located at
Davis Creek is within a water line easement, also held by the VVCSD.
There is no indication that maintenance of VVCSD infrastructure has
affected Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat at either of these
locations.
The VVCSD filed a request with the State Lands Commission in May
2010 to acquire 27 ac (11 ha) of land within the Reserve east of their
existing water tanks for the construction of a replacement water well
(VVCSD 2010). The 27-ac (11-ha) site is within the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve and is currently leased to the CDFW. Approximately
180 Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals (see the Davis Creek occurrence
discussion under the Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve section above) were observed in 2010 within the 27-ac (11-ha)
parcel of land where the VVCSD proposes to construct wells in the
future. Therefore, if development occurs at this parcel, habitat
associated with approximately 25 percent of the known individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower that were observed in 2010 within the Davis
Creek occurrence could be impacted (Meyer in litt. 2010a) (see Factor
E--Utility and Pipeline Maintenance section below). Additionally,
removing vegetation would create open space for nonnative plants to
invade this area.
In summary, there is no indication that ongoing maintenance
activities of existing pipelines and utilities have directly impacted
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. However, utility maintenance actions
could result in ground disturbance that removes Burton Mesa chaparral,
creating open areas in the vegetation that act as pathways for
nonnative plants to invade.
Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur throughout Burton Mesa and
represent the greatest threat to the remaining individuals of, and
suitable habitat for, Vandenberg monkeyflower. Invasive, nonnative
plants occur across Vandenberg monkeyflower's range, including within
and adjacent to occupied habitat at all nine extant locations, as well
as at the potentially extirpated location (Lower Santa Lucia Canyon).
The presence of invasive, nonnative plants can alter all components of
an ecosystem, from directly altering habitat and displacing individuals
(the latter of which is described under Factor E), to negatively
affecting the abundance and diversity of small mammals and insects that
disperse seeds or pollinate the native vegetation.
Disturbance is one of the primary factors that promote invasion of
nonnative species (Rejmanek 1996; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992; Hobbs
and Huenneke 1992; Brooks et al. 2004; Keeley et al. 2005). Broad
disturbances such as urban development, and disturbances along
corridors, such as roadsides and trails, provide opportunities for
nonnative plants to invade and gain a foothold in Burton Mesa (Keil and
Holland 1998, p. 23). The primary fragmenting (disturbance) event can
be the construction of a road, with or without associated housing
development; later the habitat remnants are subdivided by additional
development, or trails and smaller disturbances that occur within the
habitat remnants (Soule et al. 1992, p. 43). It is well known that
roadside edges tend to be highly invaded habitats (Gelbard and Belnap
2003, p. 422). Paved roads tend to have larger verges and more adjacent
invasive plants present than unpaved roads because of the ongoing
maintenance and improvements of paved roads (Gelbard and Belnap 2003,
pp. 422-430). Additionally, wheeled vehicles effectively disperse seed
and seed-bearing plant parts along travel routes and trails, helping to
spread invasive, nonnative plants (Gelbard and Belnap 2003; Gevirtz et
al. 2005, p. 225). Several native mammals also disperse seeds of
nonnative plants (D'Antonio 1990, pp. 697-698), including deer
(Odocoileus spp.) and rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), which effectively
disperse the seeds in feces (Odion et al. 1992, pp. 1, 27).
Furthermore, the prevailing onshore winds contribute to the rapid
spread of nonnative plants across Burton Mesa.
The expansion of nonnative plants represents a substantial problem
as it displaces native vegetation on Burton Mesa. Keil and Holland
(1998, p. 27) documented 220 nonnative plant species on Vandenberg AFB,
the majority of which are native to the Mediterranean region and a
smaller number native to Eurasia, South America, Australia, South
Africa, or other regions. A total of 124 nonnative plant species were
observed on the Reserve, 17 of which are recognized as high concern
because of their severe ecological impacts on native ecosystems
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 181). Ferren et al. (1984, p. 75) documented
90 species of nonnative plants in La Purisima Mission SHP, comprising
approximately 25 percent of the total flora at the park. The list of
species observed by Ferren et al. (1984) is not comprehensive but
includes nearly all species occurring on unplowed uplands of Burton
Mesa where Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat occurs (Hickson 1987, p.
21).
Several invasive plant species that are present within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and of particular concern with regard to altering
habitat of Vandenberg monkeyflower on Burton Mesa include veldt grass,
pampas grass, bromes, Sahara mustard, Centaurea solstitialis (star
thistle), iceplant, Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian thistle), and
Cirsium vulgare (bull thistle). The first five of these species have a
ranking of ``A'' by the California Invasive Plants
[[Page 64852]]
Council (Cal-IPC), denoting the highest level of impact on native
habitats; iceplant, Italian thistle, and bull thistle have a ranking of
``B'', denoting a moderate level of impact on native habitats (Cal-IPC
2012).
The following paragraphs include a brief discussion of four
prolific invasive, nonnative plants (veldt grass, iceplant, Sahara
mustard, and pampas grass) that are having the greatest impact to
Vandenberg monkeyflower occupied and suitable habitat across its range.
We describe general biological impacts these four invasive plants have
on native vegetation, including known impacts to Burton Mesa chaparral,
and thus, suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower. We then discuss
the specific presence and known impacts of these invasive plants on
Burton Mesa chaparral at each of the nine extant Vandenberg
monkeyflower locations and one potentially extirpated location. We
describe the biological impacts using the best available information,
which includes personal observations of many scientists who are local
experts concerning Burton Mesa or Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. Available conservation measures to minimize the threat of
invasive, nonnative plants are discussed below under Factor A--
Conservation Measures Undertaken.
(1) Veldt Grass. Veldt grass may be the most pervasive of the
nonnative species in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat because it can
produce an abundance of seeds year-round, and grows under a wide
variety of light, temperature, moisture, and substrate conditions (Keil
and Holland 1998, p. 23; The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2005, pp. 6-7).
Additionally, it is extremely difficult to eradicate once established.
Note that, while several species of veldt grass occur in this region,
the most prevalent, and the one we are focusing on in this rule, is
South African perennial veldt grass. As a sprawling perennial, veldt
grass substantially changes the plant community composition in invaded
habitats, altering fire potential by buildup of dense thatch during the
summer months (see Factor A--Anthropogenic Fire), and increasing the
rate of organic matter accumulation (TNC 2005, p. 6; Cal-IPC 2012).
Veldt grass tends to crowd out native species and prevents the
reestablishment of native herbs and shrubs; larger shrubs are not
replaced after they die (Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23; Bossard et al.
2000 pp. 164-170; Earth Tech et al. 1996, p. 314). Veldt grass also
readily spreads into roadsides and from there into openings between
shrubs (Bossard et al. 2000, p. 168). In the absence of veldt grass,
open areas that occur in native vegetative communities on the mesa tend
to be occupied by a variety of native annual herbs and short-lived
perennials (Earth Tech et al. 1996, p. 314). These open areas may
provide habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Veldt grass is spreading rapidly across Vandenberg AFB and the
Burton Mesa and represents a significant problem (Gevirtz et at. 2007,
p. 181). It was established on Vandenberg AFB in the late 1950s to
stabilize sand dunes in the Purisima Point area approximately 5 mi (8
km) south of San Antonio Terrace (Peters and Sciandrone 1964, pp. 98,
101); the San Antonio Terrace dune sheet overlies the western edges of
Burton Mesa and is upwind of Burton Mesa (Hunt 1993, p. 8). In a study
of the vegetation of San Antonio Terrace, photos from 1979 and the
early 1990s were compared, noting that veldt grass had expanded from a
few localized areas (generally around existing roads and buildings) to
become a dominant component of the vegetation and had expanded to new
areas (Earth Tech et al. 1996). Veldt grass initially invades roadway
corridors or other disturbed areas, and then spreads into the more open
herbaceous or unvegetated areas between shrubs (Earth Tech et al. 1996,
p. 314). Grasses like veldt grass that are prolific seeders can build
up a large seed bank in the soil, increasing their capacity to respond
to disturbances; however, D'Antonio and Vitousek (1992, p. 66) noted
that veldt grass is also a threat in the absence of habitat disturbance
because it can invade undisturbed coastal habitats in California. Sandy
habitats appear to be particularly susceptible to invasion in
California (TNC 2005, p. 6). Human (1990, p. 34) identified veldt grass
as the most devastating of the nonnative invaders on San Antonio
Terrace (which is upwind of Burton Mesa and thus Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat) because it forms solid stands and excludes native
plant species.
Currently, veldt grass occurs in more areas on Vandenberg AFB than
where it was initially introduced. On Vandenberg AFB, veldt grass
occurs both within and adjacent to occupied Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat and is expanding at Santa Lucia, Lake, and Pine Canyons, and
has become the dominant vegetation cover in portions of lower Oak
Canyon. Additionally, veldt grass is present and expanding at certain
locations on the Reserve, including at the Volans Avenue, Clubhouse
Estates, and Davis Creek occurrences. Veldt grass is also present at La
Purisima Mission SHP. See section below entitled Review of Invasive,
Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence regarding the presence and
known impacts of veldt grass at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences.
(2) Iceplant. Iceplant is a succulent, mat-forming perennial
(D'Antonio 1990, p. 694). A single iceplant individual can form dense,
circular mats up to 33 ft (10 m) in diameter and approximately 20 in
(40 cm) thick (D'Antonio and Mahall 1991, p. 886). It overcrowds native
plants and has an exceptional ability to spread to sandy soils along
the coast (Jacks et al. 1984, p. 12; Zedler and Scheid 1988, p. 196).
The reproductive potential of iceplant is very high (Schmalzer and
Hinkle 1987, p. 18). It propagates by seed and vegetatively; even small
stem fragments can regenerate into a new plant (Cal-IPC 2012). Iceplant
is a successful invader because seeds are dispersed before or during
the time of year when they are most likely to germinate, which allows
little time for post-dispersal predation to occur; and the seeds are
dispersed by a diversity of mammals (D'Antonio 1990, p. 700).
Additionally, Vivrette and Muller (1977, pp. 315-317) showed that the
salt leached from iceplant individuals was the limiting factor in the
growth and establishment of native grassland species. Salt retained in
aerial parts of dried iceplant individuals is transported into the soil
through leaching by fog in the summer and rain in the fall (Vivrette
and Muller 1977, pp. 311, 316; Kloot 1983, pp. 304-305). On sandy
soils, salt deposited in the summer is washed through the soil and
replaced by the remaining lower levels of salt leaching out of the
plant with the first rains in the fall (Vivrette and Muller 1977, p.
316).
Iceplant is an invasive species of great concern on Vandenberg AFB
(Keil and Holland 1998, p. 22). It was originally planted on Base along
roads and about buildings to prevent wind erosion (Human 1990, pp. 32,
42). By the mid-1990s, iceplant occupied hundreds of acres on the San
Antonio Terrace, having spread into adjacent habitats from plantings
along roadsides, the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks, and around
missile testing facilities (Earth Tech 1996, p. 264). It is especially
prevalent west of the main developed area on Vandenberg AFB because
there is extensive iceplant in the adjacent dune habitat and former
chaparral habitat, and because of extensive past mechanical disturbance
(i.e., land disturbed by mechanical equipment) within the chaparral
west of the primary developed area (Odion et al. 1992, p. 13).
Iceplant recruits abundantly within openings in the chaparral
canopy such
[[Page 64853]]
as those created by burning or mechanical disturbance (Odion et al.
1992, p. 1), and there is no area of Burton Mesa chaparral on Base
where iceplant will not invade (Odion et al. 1992, p. 13). In one
instance after a prescribed burn, iceplant was discovered in the burned
plot after the fire, which was unexpected because succulent plants
(such as iceplant) are not known to have the capacity to recover
rapidly from fire (Jacks et al. 1984, pp. 11-12). Iceplant was not
known to occur in the burn plot prior to fire; however, within 3 years
of the prescribed burn, iceplant was the second most prevalent post-
fire perennial plant observed (Zedler and Schied 1988, p. 198). Because
iceplant distribution is extensive on Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2011a)
and is common within most chaparral on the Base (Odion et al. 1992, p.
13), little effort has been made to map individuals of iceplant that
are mixed within many habitats on the Base, including Burton Mesa
chaparral.
Iceplant has also been observed in the Reserve (Junak 2011; Meyer
2012, pers. comm.) and at La Purisima Mission SHP (Gevirtz et al. 2005,
Appendix 5), although it is not as common as it is on Vandenberg AFB.
Please see the Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by
Occurrence section below regarding the presence and known impacts of
iceplant at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
(3) Sahara Mustard. Dense stands of Sahara mustard have the
potential to dominate native ecosystems, especially in dry sandy soils
(County of Santa Barbara Agricultural Commissioner's Office (Santa
Barbara Ag. Comm.) 2012). Sahara mustard is especially common in areas
with wind-blown sand deposits and in disturbed sites, such as
roadsides. Additionally, it is invading nonnative annual grassland and
coastal sage scrub on the coastal slope of southern California and is
well-established in all counties of southern California (Cal-IPC 2012).
In coastal southern California, it locally dominates nonnative
grasslands in dry, open sites, especially disturbed areas, and can
expand over larger areas replacing other nonnative annuals during
drought conditions (Cal-IPC 2012). Its early-season growth and large
size allow it to monopolize early-season moisture, expand its canopy,
and set seed before other plants have emerged (Cal-IPC 2012; Santa
Barbara Ag. Comm. 2012; Barrows et al. 2009).
Barrows et al. (2009, pp. 677-683) conducted a study in the
Coachella Valley (Imperial County, California) from 2002 to 2008, to
determine whether native annual plants were negatively affected by the
presence of Sahara mustard by comparing plots with Sahara mustard to
plots where Sahara mustard had been manually removed. Sahara mustard
formed a canopy 1 to 3 ft (0.3 to 1.0 m) from the ground and native
annuals under the canopy were often weakened by loss of sunlight,
resulting in natives that grew taller; however, the increased plant
height was at the expense of producing branches, flowers, and fruits
(Barrows et al. 2009, p. 683). Flower and seed production of annuals
growing under the Sahara mustard canopy decreased 80 to 90 percent
compared to annuals free from mustard competition (Barrows et al. 2009,
p. 683). Additionally, species richness, density, and total percent
cover of natives were higher in the plots where Sahara mustard was
removed (Barrows et al. 2009, p. 679). The strongest effect was on the
percent cover of natives, with nearly double the native annual plant
cover on plots where Sahara mustard had been manually removed.
Sahara mustard was collected at three locations on Vandenberg AFB
in the late 1990s and is likely to be more common (Keil in litt. 2013).
One of these collections was from Lake Canyon (which is the location
for one of the nine extant Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences). A
second collection of Sahara mustard was located on North Base, upwind
of Burton Mesa and thus Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The third
collection was from near Point Arguello on South Base and not near or
upwind of Burton Mesa.
More recently, Sahara mustard has been observed on Department of
Justice lands at the Lompoc Penitentiary that is near the southern
terminus of Santa Lucia Canyon Road and Oak Canyon, and borders the
southwestern corner of the Vandenberg Management Unit of the Reserve
(Meyer in litt. 2012a; Lum in litt. 2012c). It is spreading rapidly
across the Reserve, notably in the La Purisima, Santa Lucia,
Vandenberg, and Encina Management Units (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 241,
Junak 2011; Meyer in litt. 2012a). Specifically, Sahara mustard is
known to occur adjacent to the Clubhouse Estates occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower (Meyer in litt. 2012a). Additionally, a small-
scale infestation occurs by the eastern edge of La Purisima Mission SHP
(California State Parks 2011, p. 4; Santa Barbara Ag. Comm. 2012). See
the section below titled Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present
by Occurrence regarding the presence and known impacts of Sahara
mustard at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
(4) Pampas Grass. The invasion of pampas grass has altered the
landscape of Burton Mesa because it has the ability to convert
shrubland into nonnative perennial grassland and prevent native plants
from reestablishing (Permberton 1985, p. 4; Lambrinos 2000, pp. 224-
225). Once pampas grass is established, it is extremely difficult to
eradicate (McClintock 1985, p. 5). Individual plants already present in
the landscape may greatly accelerate the conversion of native
vegetation into pampas grass-dominated grasslands (Lambrinos 2002, p.
527). Therefore, the ability of pampas grass to persist for long
periods of time poses a serious threat to the native diversity of this
ecosystem (Lambrinos 2000, p. 217). Large individuals can produce
billions of seeds over the course of their reproductive lives
(Lambrinos 2000, p. 225), and because the grass seeds are wind-
dispersed (Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23), pampas grass is able to
spread into adjacent vegetation, particularly chaparral, in which there
are openings and bare soil (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31).
Additionally, it creates a fire hazard with excessive buildup of dry
leaves, leaf bases, and flowering stalks (Cal-IPC 2012) (see Factor A--
Anthropogenic Fire).
Lambrinos (2000, p. 225) studied the effects of pampas grass
invasion at Vandenberg AFB. Plots with pampas grass were compared to
adjacent plots of pristine maritime chaparral. The pampas grass-invaded
portions of the plots were associated with adjacent, relatively small-
scale disturbances, such as dirt roads, water runoff channels, and a
paved road. The only disturbance within the plots was narrow trails
used by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) that crossed both invaded and
noninvaded plots (Lambrinos 2000, pp. 219, 225). The cover of dead
shrubs was significantly greater in invaded plots, indicating shrub
cover was higher in the invaded plots at the time of invasion.
Additionally, shrub recruitment into stands of pampas grass was low,
and pampas grass individuals exhibited high recruitment rates in both
invaded and pristine maritime chaparral stands (Lambrinos 2000, p.
225).
Populations of pampas grass have been well-established on
Vandenberg AFB since 1975 (Coulombe and Cooper 1976, pp. 93-94). It was
introduced along the railroad tracks (Odion et al. 1992, p. 14), and
major populations occur around the airfield extending from the railroad
tracks south along both sides of the runway and in adjacent areas
(Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, p. 30; Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23).
Nearly all mechanically disturbed areas
[[Page 64854]]
on Base downwind of established pampas grass are now invaded (Odion et
al. 1992, p. 14). From the ruderal populations, pampas grass has also
expanded into the surrounding, relatively undisturbed chaparral where
there are openings and bare soil (Lambrinos 2000, p. 218; Schmalzer and
Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31). Therefore, over extended periods of time
pampas grass can reduce native plant diversity, even in the absence of
large-scale disturbances (Lambrinos 2000, p. 227). The most affected
habitat is Burton Mesa chaparral because the natural integrity of the
community was lost due to previous disturbances (Keil and Holland 1998,
p. 23; Lambrinos 2002, p. 519). Thus, any activities that remove native
vegetation and leave bare soil create an opportunity for pampas grass
invasion (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31).
Pampas grass has also been observed in the Reserve (Junak 2011) and
at La Purisima Mission SHP (Gevirtz et al. 2005, Appendix 5), although
it is not as widespread as it is on Vandenberg AFB. See the section
below titled Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by
Occurrence regarding the presence and known impacts of pampas grass at
each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence
In the paragraphs below we discuss the presence of invasive plants
that occur within or adjacent to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat at each of the nine extant locations and one potentially
extirpated location. The Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyon locations
are grouped based on the information available.
(1) Vandenberg AFB--Oak Canyon. Oak Canyon is a location where
Vandenberg monkeyflower was reported as common in the 1980s (see
Current Locations--Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB section for
additional site-specific information). In 2004, a 12-ac (4.86-ha) fire
burned the northeast-facing slope of lower Oak Canyon (Lum in litt.
2012e); a detailed description of the vegetation at this site prior to
the fire is not available. Since then, however, veldt grass has filled
almost every opening in the scrub in Oak Canyon and in 2012, it was the
dominant species in this area (Rutherford in litt. 2012). Four
individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower were found in 2006 (VFWO 2013),
and none were observed in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in
litt. 2012b; Rutherford in litt. 2012).
(2), (3), and (4) Vandenberg AFB--Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia
Canyons. Veldt grass occurs within and near each of the occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyons, and the
area occupied by veldt grass is expanding at each site (SAIC 2012, p.
5; Air Force 2012). Additionally, the Highway Incident wildfire in 2009
(see Factor A--Anthropogenic Fire) that burned in upper Lake Canyon
fostered expansion of invasive, nonnative plants already present in the
area, such as veldt grass, pampas grass, iceplant, and bull thistle
(Air Force 2009b, Appendix E).
(5) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Volans Avenue. Veldt grass and
iceplant occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat and near
the known occurrences at this location, and both species are likely
directly affecting the availability of sandy openings at this location
(Meyer in litt. 2013). The last time Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed at this location was in 2007 (Meyer in litt. 2007), although
we still consider this occurrence extant.
(6) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Clubhouse Estates. As of the
most recent survey in 2009, the Clubhouse Estates occurrence supported
350-400 Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals (McGowen in litt. 2009).
Since a portion of the vegetation was cleared from this project site in
2006 and later graded in 2007, veldt grass and Sahara mustard have
expanded within Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat and near
individual plants (Meyer in litt. 2010b) (see also Current Locations--
Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve; and Factor A--
Development sections above). In particular, veldt grass has moved into
the Clubhouse Estates location and is expanding into undisturbed areas
where veldt grass did not previously occur (Meyer in litt. 2010b).
Prior to the 2006 ground disturbance, iceplant and pampas grass were
present on the project site (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13-14). Iceplant typically
occurred in scattered patches adjacent to areas disturbed by roadways
and existing infrastructure (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13-14; LFR, Inc. 2006, p.
23), and pampas grass occurred throughout the project site, especially
in moister places adjacent to wetlands, along both branches of Davis
Creek that run through the site, and along roadways (SAIC 2005b, pp.
13-14; LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 23). Following the ground disturbance, veldt
grass, pampas grass, and iceplant continue to expand in the undisturbed
parcel that is designated as open space as part of the development
project. It was previously controlled around 2008, but the required 3
years of weeding (LFR, Inc 2006, pp. 48-50, 75 (Table 10)) have not
occurred (Meyer in litt. 2013).
(7) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Davis Creek. Veldt grass and
iceplant have been observed within sandy openings at the Davis Creek
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower. The CDFW observed veldt grass
within the southern portion of the area occupied by Vandenberg
monkeyflower in addition to the area approximately 100 ft (30 m) to the
north of the plants (Meyer 2012, pers. comm.). Additionally, patches of
iceplant were observed at the northern portion of the Davis Creek
occurrence (Meyer 2012, pers. comm.).
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Potentially Extirpated Occurrence
at Lower Santa Lucia Canyon. An historical observation of Vandenberg
monkeyflower was made in 1985 (Hickson in litt. 2007). However, this
species has not been recently observed at this location and is
considered potentially extirpated (see Figure 2 and Table 1) because it
has been approximately 30 years since individuals were observed (with
little survey effort between 1985 and 2011); suitable habitat remains
but it is overcrowded with invasive, nonnative plants. Currently, veldt
grass is dominant within the sandy openings in the Burton Mesa
chaparral, and herbs commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower
are absent (Meyer in litt. 2012c). Sahara mustard is expanding into the
Vandenberg Management Unit at the southwestern corner of the Reserve
from the adjacent Lompoc Penitentiary (Meyer in litt. 2012a).
(8) and (9) La Purisima Mission State Historic Park--La Purisima
Mission SHP East and West. Veldt grass occurs at both the western and
eastern occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower in the park.
Specifically, veldt grass is encroaching into intact Burton Mesa
chaparral and into open sandy areas where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows
(Ballard 2006; California State Parks 2011, p. 4).
Summary--Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur and are expanding throughout the
Burton Mesa. More specifically, at least one of the four most
problematic invasive plants occurs within or adjacent to suitable
habitat at each of the nine extant occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower and at one potentially extirpated location. Invasive
plants have demonstrated the ability to reduce the diversity of native
vegetation and convert the native shrublands into nonnative-dominated
vegetation. In some areas, particularly on Vandenberg
[[Page 64855]]
AFB, veldt grass, iceplant, and pampas grass when first introduced were
only minor components of the vegetation; today, these nonnatives are
dominant components of the vegetation at the locations where they were
introduced, and they have expanded to new areas. The expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants is also prevalent on the Reserve and at La
Purisima Mission SHP. Native shrub recruitment and growth of native
annuals into open areas is substantially decreased where these
invasive, nonnative plants become established. Thus, it is likely that
invasive, nonnative plants will become more dominant where they already
occur and will continue to expand to new areas due to the human
activities on Burton Mesa, the competitive fitness of these invasive
plants, the direction of the prevailing wind, and the potential for
small- and large-scale disturbances (see Factor A--Development and
Anthropogenic Fire), all of which could create open areas that promote
invasive, nonnative species invasion and expansion.
With regard to site-specific impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat, veldt grass has been observed occurring within suitable
habitat at each of the nine extant occurrences and at one potentially
extirpated location. Recent observations of the habitat at all nine
extant occurrences indicate that veldt grass is expanding and becoming
dominant in the sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Because veldt grass will outcompete native vegetation (including
overcrowding the sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows)
and is very difficult to eradicate once it is established, the presence
and expansion of veldt grass within known occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is a continuous threat because it reduces the amount and
quality of this species' habitat. We also discussed above three other
invasive, nonnative species (iceplant, Sahara mustard, and pampas
grass) that have substantial impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. These species, along with numerous other nonnative plant
species, are present throughout Burton Mesa and at all extant
occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Similar to veldt grass, the
other invasive, nonnative plants reduce the amount and quality of
habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower by outcompeting Burton Mesa
chaparral vegetation and decreasing the amount and availability of the
sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows. Nevertheless, no
invasive plant is as prevalent and represents as much of a threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat as veldt grass.
Anthropogenic Fire
The disturbance to maritime chaparral that anthropogenic fires
cause may exceed the tolerance thresholds (ability to tolerate
naturally occurring fire regimes and regenerate post-fire) of many
shrub species, resulting in an open canopy, the demise of shrublands,
and persistence of nonnative plants (Haidinger and Keeley 1993, pp.
143-147). The common pattern after chaparral fires is for native and
nonnative annual herbs to dominate for the first year and then
gradually decline as the cover of shrub and subshrubs increases (Zedler
et al. 1983, p. 816). A high cover of annual and perennial herbs the
first few years following the fire decreases as the shrub canopy
closes, and there is little herbaceous cover once the canopy closes,
although senescence (aging) in some shrubs may allow the recruitment of
opportunistic herb or shrub species into gaps in the chaparral (Hickson
1987, p. 5). Patterns of post-fire vegetation vary depending on
chaparral habitat composition, fire timing and intensity, and the
physical attributes and disturbance history of the site (Davis et al.
1988, p. 169).
At historical fire frequencies, chaparral species are generally
resilient to fire because they are well known to regenerate from either
resprouting of perennial root crowns or germination of seeds in the
soil when heated or exposed to smoke (obligate and sprouter seeders)
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). However, increased fire frequencies in
chaparral have led to the loss of native species that rely on seed
regeneration because there is insufficient time between fires for shrub
species to reach reproductive age and replenish the soil seed bank
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Zedler et al. (1983, pp. 815-816) noted
that high fire frequency has devastating impacts on shrub species that
require a period of recovery before being resilient to further
disturbance. On the other hand, long-term absence of fire may lead to a
gradual transition from chaparral to oak woodland (Van Dyke et al.
2001, p. 2), although this transition is also dependent upon soil
differences (Davis et al. 1988, pp.187-188). Given sufficient time
without fire, successional changes in shrublands may result in a closed
canopy that is capable of excluding most nonnative species (Keeley et
al. 2005, p. 2110).
The long-term fire history for Santa Barbara County indicates that
large fires (more than 49,400 ac (20,000 ha) and typically driven by
Santa Ana wind conditions) are part of the historical fire regime in
this region. The average time between these large fires has remained
relatively consistent over the last 500 years, regardless of changes in
land use, from the Chumash who purposely set fires along the coast
(1425-1770), to Spanish and American settlers (1770-1900) who practiced
fire suppression but with little enforcement, to the more recent period
(1900-1985) of active fire suppression (Mensing et al. 1999, pp. 301-
304). The average interval between these large fires ranges between 20
and 30 years and is strongly controlled by precipitation patterns, with
fires generally occurring at the end of wet phases and the beginning of
droughts (Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304). The range between large fire
events is 5 to 75 years (Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304).
The historical fire regime on Burton Mesa is unknown (Hickson 1987,
p. 25), but it is likely that naturally occurring fires were less
frequent as compared to inland areas because the mesa is at low
elevation and the few lightning strikes recorded in the region have
been in the distant mountains farther inland (Hickson 1988, p. 20).
Additionally, because fog, cool temperatures, and cool winds blowing
off the ocean are typical, the weather conditions conducive to
naturally occurring fires are rare on Burton Mesa (Hickson 1988, p. 22;
Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 58). Therefore, the natural fire interval for
Burton Mesa, similar to coastal chaparral environments north of the
Transverse Ranges of southern California, may be on the order of 100
years (Greenlee and Langenheim 1990, pp. 242-250; Odion and Tyler 2002,
p. 9; Moritz et al. 1997, p. 1258).
The present fire regime on Burton Mesa is likely anthropogenic
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 185; Davis and Borchert 2006, p. 338),
especially given the historical densities of Native American and
European settlers in coastal areas supporting maritime chaparral (Davis
and Borchert 2006, p. 328; Mensing et al. 1999, p. 301) along with the
related infrastructure that currently exists. Today, human-caused
ignitions are more frequent in maritime chaparral, but wildfires are
quickly suppressed or extinguished at roads and fuel breaks (Davis et
al. 1988, p. 177; Davis and Borchert 2006, p. 338). Additionally,
modern land use has fragmented the Burton Mesa chaparral into isolated
patches (see Habitat section above), so that while fires may be more
frequent now than in the past, fire size is probably reduced and the
average time between fires on certain sites increased (Hickson 1987, p.
20).
[[Page 64856]]
Approximately 34 fires have occurred within or adjacent to Burton
Mesa chaparral since 1940 on Vandenberg AFB, east of the main developed
area, and from San Antonio Creek south to the Santa Ynez River (Lum in
litt. 2012f). Odion et al. 1992 (pp. 12-14) stated that 44 fires have
occurred within or adjacent to chaparral on Burton Mesa; however, this
calculation also included fires that occurred west of the main
developed area on Vandenberg AFB, and, therefore, a larger area than
what the Air Force used. Some of the areas burned more than once
because the perimeter of different fires overlapped (Odion et al. 1992,
p. 12; Lum in litt. 2012f). A portion of the fires were prescribed
burns (Lum in litt. 2012f; Odion et al. 1992, pp. 12-14). In total, at
least 2,500 ac (1,012 ha) have burned on Vandenberg AFB since 1957
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 13). In recent years fires have accidentally
ignited on Vandenberg AFB (see discussion of Highway Incident in
paragraph below).
Twenty-eight wildfires occurred on the Reserve and adjacent La
Purisima Mission SHP in the period 1950-2003; the most recent wildfire
(Harris Grade Fire) occurred in 2000 and was caused by a power line
that may have sparked in high winds (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). This
fire consumed 11,000 ac (4,451 ha) and was the largest fire in the area
since 1977 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). All of the fires on the
Reserve and at La Purisima Mission SHP since 1950 have been a result of
human activity (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). Based on an analysis of
the fire history, approximately 3,440 ac (1,392 ha) of the 5,186-ac
(2,099-ha) Reserve has not burned since 1938 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
60), indicating an absence of fire for at least 70 years on 66 percent
of the Reserve's property. Similarly, the majority of vegetation at La
Purisima Mission SHP has not been burned since before 1938, and most of
the native habitat in the park is also more than 70 years old (Gevirtz
et al. 2005, p. 77).
Although the fire interval in maritime chaparral is an important
factor in determining species composition, on Burton Mesa, and for
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat specifically, the frequency of fire is
secondary to the primary threat, which is the post-fire expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants. California's chaparral habitats, like
Burton Mesa, are most vulnerable to invasion by nonnative plants in the
first few years after fire because fires open large areas of bare,
nutrient-rich ground and remove toxins from the soil, chaparral
recolonizes much more slowly because of limited seed dispersal, and
some seedlings are poor competitors against nonnative annual species
(Keeley et al. 2003, pp. 1362-1363; Alberts et al. 1993, p. 107; Davis
and Mooney 1985, p. 528).
Because sites favorable for invasion by nonnative plants tend to be
relatively open areas where existing plant cover is minimal (see Factor
A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants), and wildfires occurring on Burton Mesa
create such open areas, fires within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
tend to increase the expansion of invasive plants that are already
established. For example, an accidental wildfire (Highway Incident)
occurred in September 2009 on Vandenberg AFB when sparks from a power
line started a wildfire that burned approximately 617 ac (250 ha) (Air
Force 2009b, p. 1) in upper Lake Canyon. The southern boundary of this
wildfire burned to within 0.25 mi (0.4 km) of the known Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrence down-slope in Lake Canyon. The Burned Area
Emergency Response (BAER) Plan noted that invasive, nonnative species
already present in the area, including veldt grass, pampas grass,
iceplant, and bull thistle, were confirmed or discovered in the burn
area within 2 weeks of the fire (Air Force 2009b, Appendix E). Veldt
grass initially colonizes disturbed areas, such as open areas created
by wildfires, and can become a dominant component of the vegetation and
expand to new areas (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants). Another
example in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat includes a 12-ac (5-ha) fire
that occurred in Oak Canyon on Vandenberg AFB in 2004; as a result,
veldt grass is the dominant vegetation on a hillside sloping toward the
canyon (Google Earth 2012).
In addition to displacing native vegetation, the presence of
nonnative plants (in particular nonnative grasses) has increased the
supply of readily ignitable fuel and increased the seasonal duration
when fuels are susceptible to ignition, both because of their earlier
seasonal drying compared to shrubs and their high surface-to-volume
ratio (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Mediterranean grasses such as
bromes and Avena barbata (slender wild oat) are particularly implicated
since they act as wicks, spreading fast-moving fire into the canopies
of larger shrub vegetation (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Thus, the
abundance of nonnative vegetation initiates a positive feedback cycle
based on increased biomass, changes in the distribution of flammable
biomass, and increased flammability (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 29).
Bromus rubens (red brome) occurs on Burton Mesa and is known to rapidly
colonize disturbed sites with open canopies and exposed bare ground
(Brown and Minnich 1986, pp. 414, 418; Bossard et al. 2000, pp. 72-80).
The prevalence of veldt grass and pampas grass also increases the fire
potential on Burton Mesa (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants
section).
Fire Prevention and Suppression Activities
The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks have developed
wildfire prevention and suppression practices not only to minimize the
potential for wildfire, but also to minimize the impacts to the
biological resources during suppression activities. As part of wildfire
management practices, landowners and agencies may create fuel breaks (a
permanent area of low volume fuel) to limit the spread of wildfire and
to provide access for fire suppression activities (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
p. 261). Merriam et al. (2006, pp. 525-526) observed that nonnative
species represented an increasing proportion of total plant cover on
fuel breaks with fuel-break age, suggesting that nonnative species can
displace native species on fuel breaks, and become increasingly
dominant over time (for example, bromes were four of the five most
observed nonnative plants on fuel breaks (Merriam et al. 2006, p.
519)). Additionally, wildland areas adjacent to fuel breaks were more
likely to be invaded by nonnative species when these areas had been
subject to recurrent fires (Merriam et al. 2006, p. 526).
Fire suppression activities that impact suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat include bulldozed and hand-cut fire lines and the
application of fire retardants. During the Highway Incident wildfire,
the Air Force cut fire lines that resulted in a loss of Burton Mesa
chaparral (Air Force 2009b, p. 28). Additionally, approximately 65,000
gallons (246,052 liters) of fire retardant (which is known to act as a
fertilizer enhancing the growth of nonnative grasses (Avery 2001, pp.
17-18)) were spread over this site (Air Force 2009b, p. 28). Therefore,
by burning the existing vegetation, fire creates open areas where
invasive, nonnative plants can expand. Additionally, fire prevention
and suppression activities (e.g., fire breaks and application of fire
retardant) can exacerbate the resulting post-fire expansion of
nonnative plants by creating open fire lines and if fire retardants add
chemicals to the soil that stimulate growth of nonnative vegetation.
The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks are studying the
feasibility
[[Page 64857]]
of a prescribed burning program to restore fire to its natural role in
the environment and help restore the native vegetation of Burton Mesa
(California State Parks 1991, p. 110; Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 258;
California State Parks 2010, p. 3; Air Force 2012, p. 2). However, many
local communities are concerned about the safety of conducting
prescribed burns on wildlands when they occur within or near urban
areas, thus complicating the ability of agencies to carry out such
burns.
In summary, because of the human presence and infrastructure on the
mesa, the frequency of human-caused wildfires is likely greater than
the frequency of the historical fires in the past on Burton Mesa. An
increased fire frequency in Burton Mesa chaparral would tend to favor
the establishment of nonnative vegetation in open areas at the expense
of native vegetation. However, the primary threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat from fire is the post-fire expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants, regardless of the fire frequency. Because
an abundance of nonnative plants already occurs on the mesa and
invasive plants rapidly invade open areas, any fire that occurs within
or adjacent to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat is likely to result in
an increase of invasive, nonnative vegetation. Likewise, fire
suppression activities that include clearing vegetation in fuel breaks
or spreading retardant would increase the likelihood of nonnative
species invading suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat, as well as
enhance the habitat conditions for invasive species expansion.
Additionally, because the presence of invasive, nonnative plants
creates a positive feedback mechanism, the greater the percent cover of
nonnative vegetation, the more likely fires will occur on Burton Mesa.
Based on the information presented in this section, the current threat
from anthropogenic fire and associated fire suppression activities to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat described above is expected to continue
into the future. Available conservation measures to minimize the threat
of anthropogenic wildfire are discussed below (see Factor A--
Conservation Measures Undertaken).
Recreation and Other Human Activities
Recreational activities that occur throughout Burton Mesa include
authorized uses such as hunting, hiking, biking, wildlife observation,
and leashed-dog walking. Additionally, off-road vehicle (ORV) use is
authorized on Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2011b, p. 6), but it is not
permitted on the Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70) or La Purisima
Mission SHP (California State Parks 1991, p. 109).
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
On the west end of Burton Mesa on Vandenberg AFB, recreational
activities include OHV use and other casual-use activities, such as
hunting, picnicking, and horseback riding. There is also an existing
237-ac (96-ha) golf course.
Prior to 1974, Vandenberg AFB was subject to uncontrolled use by
ORVs. In April 1974, efforts to establish a program to control ORV use
was prompted by dune damage and the complaints of recreational users,
along with consideration of soil, water, air, noise, aesthetics,
recreational users, wildlife, vegetation, suitability of other public
lands, archaeological sites, threatened and endangered species, and the
accessibility for users (Air Force 2011b, p. 6). Thus, Vandenberg AFB
environmental staff and the Base's motorcycle club designated an ORV
area (Air Force 2011b, p. 6). Currently, ORV use occurs within a 600-ac
(243-ha) site that is west of the primary developed area on Base and an
additional site referred to as Northstar that is located in the
northeast portion of the Base (Air Force 2011b, p. 6), both of which
are not within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The ORVs use existing
trails and roads, and are managed to prevent damage to sensitive areas
such as wetlands and highly erodible soils (Air Force 2011b, p. 6).
Therefore, ORV use on Vandenberg AFB is not within the vicinity of
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences on the Base and is not a direct
threat to this species and its habitat.
The west end of Burton Mesa on Vandenberg AFB (west of the primary
developed area) is heavily disturbed by existing trails and service
roads, which may be used by recreationists. Although vehicles using
these roads and trails (including wheeled vehicles for recreational
activities) likely contribute to the spread of invasive, nonnative
plant species on Burton Mesa (see Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above), no information is available to assess the extent and degree to
which this may be occurring on Vandenberg AFB. Moreover, the best
available information does not indicate that these recreational
activities on the west end of Burton Mesa on Base are a direct threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
To the east of the developed area where higher-quality Burton Mesa
chaparral still remains and where Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs on
Base, recreational activities that may impact the habitat of this
species include hunting and picnicking. Hunting occurs over much of the
Base and is subject to restrictions at any time based on human safety
and security concerns, as well as wildlife management goals (Air Force
2011b, p. 7). Lake Canyon Lakes picnic area is within a few hundred
feet of Vandenberg monkeyflower plants that are located in lower Lake
Canyon, but the picnic facilities are located on concrete or asphalt
and thus not in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Overall, the best
available information does not indicate that recreational activities on
Base, including hunting and picnicking, are directly impacting
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat. However, these activities pose
an indirect threat to the habitat quality because they contribute to
the spread of nonnative plants within suitable habitat.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
There are no formal recreational or public facilities currently
within the Reserve, including no designated parking or restroom
facilities (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 69). Authorized uses include
hiking, wildlife observation, and leashed-dog walking. Wheeled
recreational activities such as OHV use and bicycles are not allowed in
the Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). The management plan for the
Reserve identifies approximately 28 mi (45 km) of trails (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 71). The existing trails are a combination of oil and
utility service roads and an informal network of pathways from the
surrounding residential areas (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 69). Impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat from authorized recreational uses are
likely negligible because visitors walk into the Reserve and the CDFW
has posted signs at the most highly used access points to direct
recreational users to low-impact trails so as to reduce disturbances to
the native vegetation.
The Volans Avenue occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower is located
adjacent to Vandenberg Village and a VVCSD pipeline easement that is
used by local residents for hiking, jogging, dog walking, and other
casual recreational activities. Running events have previously occurred
in this area of the Reserve, and the running route was likely in close
vicinity to the Volans Avenue occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower
(Ballard in litt. 2012). Vandenberg monkeyflower was last observed in
2007 at this location (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007),
although habitat is still present. In the other years from 2004 to
2006, and in
[[Page 64858]]
2009, no plants were found (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007;
Meyer in litt. 2009a).
It is unknown whether disturbance created by casual human use has
played a role in the absence of Vandenberg monkeyflower's aboveground
expression at this location since 2007. The best available information
indicates that recreational activities involving casual human use on
the Reserve are having minimal to no direct effect on Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat on Burton Mesa. However, veldt grass, which
produces an abundance of seeds and tends to crowd out native species
and prevent their reestablishment, is likely reducing the amount of
available Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at this location (see the
specific Volans Avenue discussion above under the Review of Invasive,
Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence section). Additionally, because
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat is fragmented by recreational trails,
the introduction of additional invasive, nonnative plants into this
area is likely because spreading of nonnative vegetation is known to
occur through visitors' shoes (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225). Therefore,
recreational activities may indirectly affect this species by spreading
invasive, nonnative plants into the habitat (i.e., sandy openings)
where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Unauthorized ORV use has been reported on the western portions of
the Reserve (Santa Lucia Management Unit) from adjacent lands on
Vandenberg AFB. It is likely that the trespass is originating from the
general public (nonmilitary) because public roadways (such as Santa
Lucia Canyon Road) cross Vandenberg AFB lands on this portion of the
Base and the Air Force controls the use of ORVs by military staff on
the Base. As a result of unauthorized use on the Reserve, CDFW
installed a gate in 2009 to control access along Santa Lucia Canyon
Road (Meyer in litt 2009b). Unauthorized ORV activity has also been
reported at another location of the Reserve that supports Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrences and suitable habitat (i.e., east of, and
adjacent to, the Clubhouse Estates project site) (Meyer in litt 2010c).
Additionally, bicycles are prohibited in Burton Mesa (14 California
Code of Regulations (CCR) 630 (b)(22)(B)). However, unauthorized
mountain biking has been observed in the Reserve within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat (Meyer in litt. 2013). The available information
does not indicate the extent and degree to which ORV and mountain
biking may be directly impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on the
Reserve. However, wheeled recreational activities likely contribute to
the spread of invasive, nonnative plant species within the Reserve
along the travel routes, some of which occur within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat.
The Santa Barbara County Sheriff and Fire Departments maintain
facilities on a county-owned inholding within the Reserve. They have
been leasing an adjacent 3-ac (1.2-ha) parcel from the State Lands
Commission (SLC) for the last 15 years to maintain their equestrian
training facility, and the use of horses has expanded onto the Reserve.
The lease has since expired, and the SLC is evaluating whether to renew
the lease or modify its terms (Meyer in litt. 2012b). The Santa Barbara
County Sheriff Department desires to keep horses in the stalls behind
the facility; however, horse use is not allowed on Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve (14 CCR Section 630(b)(22(B)), and CDFW wants to
keep the area of impact to a few acres near the stalls (Meyer in litt.
2012b). Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences and suitable habitat do not
occur near this facility and, therefore, no direct impacts to the
habitat would occur.
The Lompoc Valley Flyers Club (Flyers Club) operated a dirt take-
off and landing strip for model airplanes, a race track for model cars,
and several picnic tables in the Vandenberg Management Unit of the
Reserve (just south of California State Highway 1) from 1988 to 2000
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The Flyers Club routinely graded the
landing strip and access road; this surface scar is still evident in
aerial photographs and erosion is a continuing problem at this site
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The activities occurred in Burton Mesa
chaparral but not near known occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower.
However, these activities have reduced suitable habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower through removal and degradation of Burton Mesa chaparral
and creation of open areas that allow nonnative plants to establish.
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
La Purisima Mission SHP contains roads and trails authorized for
use by local residents for hiking, dog walking, and horseback riding,
and employs park rangers and staff to maintain the grounds and conduct
patrols. Twelve miles (19 km) of riding and hiking trails wind through
the park, including 3.7 mi (6 km) of historical trails near the mission
and 8.8 mi (14 km) in the surrounding hills (California State Parks
1991, pp. 9, 107). Bicycles are permitted on approximately 5 mi (8 km)
of these trails (which are also designated fire roads), and the
remainder, with a few exceptions, are open to horses (California State
Parks 1991, pp. 9, 107). Vehicle movement and pedestrian and equestrian
use do not directly impact Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La
Purisima Mission SHP because the roads and trails do not overlap where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs. However, indirect impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat may occur due to nonnative plant invasions
introduced through visitors' shoes, horse hoofs, vehicle tires, and
tractor treads (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225). The best available
information indicates that recreational activities involving casual
human use at La Purisima Mission SHP are having minimal to no direct
effect on Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on Burton Mesa.
Summary--Recreation and Other Human Activities
Off-road vehicle use and other casual recreational activities may
contribute to soil disturbance and increase the potential for invasive,
nonnative plants to be introduced and further spread across Burton
Mesa, including into locations where Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
suitable habitat occurs. At this time, the best available information
does not indicate that recreational activities pose a substantial
direct threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat, although these
activities would indirectly affect the habitat by contributing to the
spread of invasive, nonnative plants within the habitat and reducing
the habitat quality. Available conservation measures to minimize the
threat of recreation are discussed below under Factor A--Conservation
Measures Undertaken.
Climate Change
Our analyses under the Act include consideration of ongoing and
projected changes in climate. The terms ``climate'' and ``climate
change'' are defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). The term ``climate'' refers to the mean and variability of
different types of weather conditions over time, with 30 years being a
typical period for such measurements, although shorter or longer
periods also may be used (IPCC 2007a, p. 78). The term ``climate
change'' thus refers to a change in the mean or variability of one or
more measures of climate (for example, temperature or precipitation)
that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer,
whether the change is due to natural variability,
[[Page 64859]]
human activity, or both (IPCC 2007a, p. 78).
Scientific measurements spanning several decades demonstrate that
changes in climate are occurring, and that the rate of change has
increased since the 1950s. Examples include warming of the global
climate system, and substantial increases in precipitation in some
regions of the world and decreases in others (For these and other
examples, see IPCC 2007a, p. 30; and Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 35-54,
82-85). Results of scientific analyses presented by the IPCC show that
most of the observed increase in global average temperature since the
mid-20th century cannot be explained by natural variability in climate,
and is ``very likely'' (defined by the IPCC as 90 percent or higher
probability) due to the observed increase in greenhouse gas (GHG)
concentrations in the atmosphere as a result of human activities,
particularly carbon dioxide emissions from use of fossil fuels (IPCC
2007a, pp. 5-6 and figures SPM.3 and SPM.4; Solomon et al. 2007, pp.
21-35). Further confirmation of the role of GHGs comes from analyses by
Huber and Knutti (2011, p. 4), who concluded that it is extremely
likely that approximately 75 percent of global warming since 1950 has
been caused by human activities.
Scientists use a variety of climate models, which include
consideration of natural processes and variability, as well as various
scenarios of potential levels and timing of GHG emissions, to evaluate
the causes of changes already observed and to project future changes in
temperature and other climate conditions (for example, Meehl et al.
2007, entire; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 11555, 15558; Prinn et al. 2011,
pp. 527, 529). All combinations of models and emissions scenarios yield
very similar projections of increases in the most common measure of
climate change, average global surface temperature (commonly known as
global warming), until about 2030. Although projections of the
magnitude and rate of warming differ after about 2030, the overall
trajectory of all the projections is one of increased global warming
through the end of this century, even for the projections based on
scenarios that assume that GHG emissions will stabilize or decline.
Thus, there is strong scientific support for projections that warming
will continue through the 21st century, and that the magnitude and rate
of change will be influenced substantially by the extent of GHG
emissions (IPCC 2007a, pp. 44-45; Meehl et al. 2007, pp. 760-764, 797-
811; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555-15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527,
529). (See IPCC 2007b, p. 8, for a summary of other global projections
of climate-related changes, such as frequency of heat waves and changes
in precipitation. Also see IPCC 2011 (entire) for a summary of
observations and projections of extreme climate events.)
Various changes in climate may have direct or indirect effects on
species. These effects may be positive, neutral, or negative, and they
may change over time, depending on the species and other relevant
considerations, such as interactions of climate with other variables
(for example, habitat fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8-14, 18-19).
Identifying likely effects often involves aspects of climate change
vulnerability analysis. Vulnerability refers to the degree to which a
species (or system) is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse
effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.
Vulnerability is a function of the type, magnitude, and rate of climate
change and variation to which a species is exposed, its sensitivity,
and its adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007a, p. 89; see also Glick et al.
2011, pp. 19-22). No single method for conducting such analyses applies
to all situations (Glick et al. 2011, p. 3). We use our expert judgment
and appropriate analytical approaches to weigh relevant information,
including uncertainty, in our consideration of various aspects of
climate change.
As is the case with all stressors that we assess, even if we
conclude that a species is currently affected or is likely to be
affected in a negative way by one or more climate-related impacts, it
does not necessarily follow that the species meets the definition of an
``endangered species'' or a ``threatened species'' under the Act. If a
species is listed as endangered or threatened, knowledge regarding the
vulnerability of the species to, and known or anticipated impacts from,
climate-associated changes in environmental conditions can be used to
help devise appropriate strategies for its recovery.
Global climate projections are informative and, in some cases, the
only or the best scientific information available for us to use.
However, projected changes in climate and related impacts can vary
substantially across and within different regions of the world (for
example, IPCC 2007a, pp. 8-12). Therefore, we use ``downscaled''
climate projections when they are available and have been developed
through appropriate scientific procedures, because such projections
provide higher resolution information that is more relevant to spatial
scales used for analyses of a given species (see Glick et al. 2011, pp.
58-61, for a discussion of downscaling). With regard to our analysis
for Vandenberg monkeyflower, downscaled climate projections are
available.
Within central-western California (i.e., counties along the
California coast from the San Francisco Bay area south to Santa Barbara
County), regional climate models project a mean annual temperature
increase of 1.6 to 1.9 degrees Celsius ([deg]C) (2.9-3.4 degrees
Fahrenheit ([deg]F)) and a mean diurnal temperature range increase of
0.1 to 0.2 [deg]C (0.2-0.4[emsp14][deg]F) by 2070 (Point Reyes Bird
Observatory (PRBO) Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). The projected
impacts of climate change are warmer winter temperatures, earlier
warming in the spring, and increased summer temperatures (PRBO
Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). Additionally, regional climate
models project a decrease in mean annual rainfall of 2.4 to 7.4 in (6.1
to 18.8 cm) (PRBO Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). The large range of
possible precipitation change (-11 percent to -32 percent) is due to
different model projections and sensitivity. This sensitivity indicates
substantial uncertainty in precipitation projections (PRBO Conservation
Science 2011, p. 35). Other scientific sources (Snyder et al. 2004, pp.
594-595) project similar temperature increases and precipitation
decreases along the central California coast.
Of the three major vegetation types within central-western
California, decreases in cover are projected for chaparral-coastal
scrub habitat (-19 to -43 percent) and blue oak woodland-foothill pine
habitat (-44 to -55 percent), and an increase in cover projected for
grassland habitat (85 to 140 percent) to 2070 (PRBO Conservation
Science 2011, p. 38). Lenihan et al. (2008) also projects decreases in
cover for conifer forests and shrublands, and increases in cover for
grasslands in central-western California by the 2070-2099 period.
Additionally, changes in vegetation communities could also be hastened
by more and larger wildfires, as well as effective wildfire suppression
(PRBO Conservation Science 2011, pp. 37-38) (see Factor A--
Anthropogenic Fire section).
To estimate what changes in rainfall and temperature, if any, would
occur in the Burton Mesa area over the next 50 years, we used both
local weather data and an available projection tool called
ClimateWizard (2012). Temperature and precipitation data have been
recorded in the City of Lompoc, approximately 4 mi (6.4 km) to the
south of Burton Mesa
[[Page 64860]]
Ecological Reserve. Between 1950 and 2006, the average annual
temperature was approximately 58 [deg]F (14 [deg]C); the average annual
precipitation was approximately 15 in (38 cm) (Western Regional Climate
Center 2012). We then used ClimateWizard (2012) to project future
climate conditions and compare to baseline values (the latter of which
is defined as the average temperature or precipitation between 1961 and
1990 (ClimateWizard 2012)). ClimateWizard (2012) projects that rainfall
would decrease an average of 8 to 12 percent from baseline and
temperature would rise approximately 2.5 [deg]F (1.4 [deg]C) by the
2050s. A comparison between the Burton Mesa area and the eastern
portion of Santa Barbara County (for example, 30 mi (48 km) east of the
Burton Mesa area, which is projected to rise approximately 5 [deg]F
(2.8 [deg]C)), indicates that the change in temperature is expected to
be less in the Burton Mesa area. This is likely due to the moderating
influence of ocean temperatures in coastal areas.
In a changing climate, conditions could change in a way that would
allow both native and nonnative plants to invade the habitat where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs. A growing body of literature discusses
the specific mechanisms by which climate change could affect the
abundance, distribution, and long-term viability of plant species, as
well as current habitat configuration over time, including (but not
limited to): Root et al. (2003), Parmesan and Yohe (2003), and Visser
and Both (2005). While studies on response to climate change have not
been conducted for Vandenberg monkeyflower, responses may be similar to
other plant species with a similar life history. Some of the responses
by plants to climate change presented by Root et al. (2003), Parmesan
and Yohe (2003), Visser and Both (2005), and others include the
following:
(1) Drier conditions may result in less suitable habitat, or a
lower germination success and smaller population sizes.
(2) Higher temperatures may inhibit germination, dry out soil, or
affect pollinator services.
(3) The timing of pollinator life cycles may become out-of-sync
with timing of flowering.
(4) A shift in the timing and nature of annual precipitation may
favor expansion in abundance and distribution of nonnative species.
(5) Drier conditions may result in increased fire frequency, making
the ecosystems in which a species currently grows more vulnerable to
threats of nonnative plant invasion.
We recognize that climate change is an important issue with
potential impacts to species and their habitats, including Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Regional climate projections indicate that a warming and
drying trend is likely in central-western California, which would
likely make habitat less favorable for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
However, as stated above, these warming and drying effects may be
moderated by the marine influence. Therefore, climate change may not
affect Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat as quickly or as
extensively as may be projected. We will continue to seek additional
information concerning how climate change may affect the Burton Mesa
area (see Information Received section above).
Conservation Measures Undertaken
The Air Force has an approved Integrated Natural Resources
Management Plan (INRMP) on Vandenberg AFB, and the CDFW and California
State Parks have established natural resources management plans for the
Reserve and La Purisima Mission SHP, respectively. Herein, we discuss
specific conservation measures as they apply to each threat described
above (see Factor A--Development, Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities, Invasive, Nonnative Plants, Anthropogenic Fire, and
Recreation sections above); however, not all landowners implement
conservation measures that address each threat.
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
The Air Force developed an INRMP in 2011 (Air Force 2011c) pursuant
to the Sikes Act Improvement Act of 1997 (Sikes Act). The Sikes Act
requires the Department of Defense to develop and implement INRMPs for
military installations in the United States. INRMPs direct the
management and use of the lands on a military installation and are
prepared in cooperation with the Service and State fish and wildlife
agencies to ensure proper consideration of fish, wildlife, and habitat
needs. This Vandenberg AFB INRMP was prepared to provide strategic
direction to ecosystem and natural resources management on Base. The
long-term goal of the INRMP is to integrate all management activities
in a manner that sustains, promotes, and restores the health and
integrity of ecosystems using an adaptive management approach. The
INRMP was designed to: (1) Summarize existing management plans and
natural resources literature pertaining to Vandenberg AFB; (2) identify
and analyze management goals in existing plans; (3) integrate the
management goals and objectives of individual plans; (4) support Base
compliance with applicable regulatory requirements; (5) support the
integration of natural resource stewardship with the Air Force mission;
and (6) provide direction for monitoring strategies. The INRMP includes
a chapter that identifies step-down goals for the management of
threatened and endangered species on Base; however, since Vandenberg
monkeyflower was not a listed species at that time, specific goals for
it were not included. In 2012, the Air Force approved an addendum that
addresses specific goals for Vandenberg monkeyflower (Air Force 2012).
The INRMP and addendum provide for measures that would conserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower, as follows:
(1) Development. The Air Force is not likely to construct new
launch facilities within suitable habitat near human-populated areas,
and the future siting of community facilities is expected to occur in a
manner that capitalizes on existing infrastructure and circulation
systems (Air Force 2009a, p. 32). Thus, no specific conservation
measures have been proposed to minimize the threat of development to
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat on Base.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. Construction
of new facilities is not likely to occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat; however, existing utilities will require periodic maintenance.
No specific conservation measures were proposed in the addendum to the
INRMP (Air Force 2012). The main objective is to avoid any impacts to
habitat, when possible, by either confining the work to existing
disturbed areas or rerouting the work to avoid suitable habitat
completely, and minimize the impact as much as possible (Air Force
2012, p. 2). For Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Air Force would avoid
impacting Burton Mesa chaparral as much as possible if utility
maintenance is required in suitable habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Plants. The INRMP (Air Force 2011a)
includes an Invasive Plant Species Management Plan that identifies the
threat of invasive, nonnative plants on Base, and proposes removal
methods to limit further spread and assist in restoration of habitat
degraded by invasive species. In most cases, the Air Force would
utilize chemical application to manage for invasive plants (Air Force
2011a, p. 43). Although the INRMP identified invasive, nonnative plants
as a threat and calls for their removal, it did not identify which
nonnative species, and
[[Page 64861]]
which areas on Base, were a priority for treatment.
In the 2012 addendum to their INRMP, the Air Force identifies veldt
grass as the most problematic invasive, nonnative plant on Base for
Vandenberg monkeyflower. As part of this addendum, the Air Force also
identified their 10-year funding program, which included more than
$500,000 to treat veldt grass, starting in 2009 and continuing through
2019 (Air Force 2012). While the Air Force does not specify precisely
where, when, or how much veldt grass will be treated or removed in
specific years, they state that a substantial portion of this effort
will focus on areas within the range of Vandenberg monkeyflower (Air
Force 2012, p. 1). Through 2012, the Air Force has chemically treated
approximately 141 acres (57 ha) of invasive, nonnative plants, mostly
treating pampas grass within Burton Mesa chaparral but not near extant
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences (treatment was to benefit
Eriodictyon capitatum (Lompoc yerba santa)). Other invasive, nonnative
plants treated included veldt grass, iceplant, Eucalyptus spp.
(Eucalyptus), and Pinus spp. (Pine)). Only a small proportion of this
chemical removal occurred within Burton Mesa chaparral at two locations
where Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs (Lake and Pine Canyons) (Lum in
litt. 2013).
(4) Fire. For fires that would affect Vandenberg monkeyflower and
its habitat, the Air Force developed a GIS layer incorporating all
potential suitable habitat areas, which has been made available to fire
response crews for use during actual fire events. Multiple conservation
measures that address the potential threat of fire are included in the
addendum (Air Force 2012, p. 2), including the following:
(a) Established roads, both paved and unpaved, would be used to the
greatest extent possible as fire lines unless an emergency dictates
otherwise.
(b) Burned areas would be assessed after a fire for rehabilitation
options within 10 days of the area being declared safe for entry.
(c) Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat affected by wildfire and
rehabilitation projects will be monitored, which would include
recommendations for nonnative species control.
(d) Following any significant wildfire event within the range of
Vandenberg monkeyflower on Base, a Burn Area Emergency Response (BAER)
project will be initiated. This generally includes implementation of
erosion control, native vegetation restoration, firebreak
rehabilitation, and invasive species management.
Additionally, the addendum proposes to incorporate portions of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat in a controlled burn program (Air Force
2012, p. 2).
(5) Recreation. No conservation measures have been proposed to
address the threat of recreation to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve (Reserve)
Ecological Reserves are established under California State law to
provide protection for rare, threatened, or endangered native plants,
wildlife, aquatic organisms, and specialized terrestrial or aquatic
habitat types. According to the California Code of Regulations (14 CCR
Section 630), public entry and use of ecological reserves shall be
compatible with the primary purposes of such reserves, and subject to
general rules and regulations. The State Lands Commission signed a 49-
year lease of the Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve on January 20, 2000.
The purpose of the lease is to manage, operate, and maintain these
sovereign lands for the sensitive species and habitats they support
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 3). The CDFW developed a management plan for
the Reserve that guides management of habitats, species, and programs
to achieve the mission of CDFW to protect and enhance wildlife values
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 1).
Conservation measures are proposed in the management plan, as
outlined below. However, implementation of the management goals is
contingent upon available funding and staffing. Currently, no funding
is dedicated for the management of the Reserve and it is staffed by 10
percent of one biologist position. Some grant funding has been used for
specific management needs.
(1) Development. Because new development would not occur on the
Reserve, there are no conservation measures to implement that would
minimize this threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. Several
public utilities and local governmental agencies provide services to
the local community and use the Reserve to accomplish their roles.
Within the Reserve, agencies responsible for conducting maintenance
activities submit maintenance plans for all scheduled activities to
CDFW, who in turn may request conservation measures (such as modifying
the size and frequency of actions) to minimize impacts on natural
resources (Gevirtz et al. 2007, pp. 230-236). We are not aware of
specific projects in which the CDFW has requested conservation measures
to minimize the impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
However, the goal is to minimize damage to sensitive biological and
cultural resources (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 230), which would include
minimizing impacts to Burton Mesa chaparral.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species. The Reserve's management plan
encourages minimizing the impact and presence of invasive, nonnative
plants, including monitoring and removing nonnative plants; preventing
new introductions by working with public utilities, local governmental
agencies, and recreationists that use the Reserve; and restoring
disturbed and degraded areas with native species (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
pp. 241-242, 249-253). Additionally, during spring of 2011, the Santa
Barbara Botanic Garden conducted a 2-day educational workshop at the
Reserve to discuss Burton Mesa chaparral and identify the local plants,
learn more about the distribution and habitat requirements of some of
the County's rare plants, and document populations of rapidly spreading
weeds, such as Sahara mustard, that are threatening rare species (Junak
2011). Furthermore, volunteers, CDFW, and our staff have occasionally
mapped, removed, or chemically treated a few populations of invasive,
nonnative plants on the Reserve, including Sahara mustard, veldt grass,
iceplant, and pampas grass (Junak 2011; Meyer 2012, pers. comm.). We
recently provided funding ($60,000) to CDFW to compare various removal
methods for invasive species, in which part of the funding would be
used to enhance suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on the Reserve
and monitor the results; work will commence in 2013 (CDFG 2011,
entire).
(4) Fire. The CDFW management plan for the Reserve calls for
coordination among the Santa Barbara County Fire Department,
enforcement agencies, local governmental agencies, and adjacent small
and large landowners to ensure that fire risk is reduced, that new
development projects adjacent to the Reserve are reviewed by CDFW staff
and address fuel reduction needs and requirements, and that appropriate
and efficient post-fire remediation takes place, where needed (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, pp. 255-262). Reducing the risk of fire would limit the
potential for wildfire to occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat,
and thus reduce the impact of fire suppression activities and the
impact of invasive, nonnative plants invading the habitat post-fire
(see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants and Anthropogenic Fire
sections above). Additionally, the plan suggests
[[Page 64862]]
prohibiting the use of prescribed fire for the purposes of reducing
fuel load, but allowing use of controlled burns for small-scale
restoration projects (such as suppression of annual grasses or
stimulation of chaparral seed bank for restoration projects) (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 258). No controlled burns within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat have occurred to date.
(5) Recreation. CDFW developed a trails plan that shows existing
trails within the Reserve as well as proposed new trail construction;
seasonal trail closures or restrictions may occur to protect sensitive
resources such as wildlife breeding locations or rare plant assemblages
that vary from year to year (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). This system
of trails would reduce the risk of authorized recreational uses
directly impacting suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The
management plan calls for maintaining public access to the Reserve
through pedestrian hiking trails by providing a network of trails,
including loop trails, linking interesting areas while protecting
resources, and preventing unauthorized uses (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
231).
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
General plans for State Parks are prepared to guide future
management and development of State Park System units. The goal of the
State Parks natural resource management program is to protect, restore,
and maintain the natural resources in the State Park System. A general
plan is the primary management document for each unit of the California
State Park System, defining a park's primary purpose, and establishing
a management direction for its future. The General Plan must satisfy
certain requirements of the Public Resources Code and be approved by
the California State Park and Recreation Commission before the
Department undertakes any development in the park that would constitute
a permanent commitment of natural or cultural resources. Further, broad
resource management policies concerning State Historic Parks are stated
in the Public Resources Code, the California Code of Regulations, and
the Department's Resource Management Directives (California State Parks
1991, p. 54). A general management plan for La Purisima Mission SHP was
completed in 1991 (California State Parks 1991, entire), and an
ecosystem characterization of La Purisima Mission SHP was completed in
2005 (Gevirtz et al. 2005, entire). Directives specific to La Purisima
Mission SHP that concern the habitat where Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurs include preserving Burton Mesa chaparral, protecting and
managing rare and endangered plants in perpetuity, controlling
nonnative plants that have become established, and developing a
prescribed-burn plan (California State Parks 1991, p. 54).
Conservation measures are proposed in the general management plan,
as outlined below. However, implementation of the management goals is
contingent upon available funding and staffing. State Parks often rely
upon the dedicated work of volunteers. Additionally, while the
management plan contains biological resource conservation measures, the
primary goal of the plan for La Purisima Mission SHP is to preserve the
historical setting and maintain the historical ``sense of place''--
visitors' sense of stepping back in history (California State Parks
1991, p. 3).
(1) Development. The significance of the historical setting at La
Purisima Mission SHP has always been given a high priority, as has
management of the existing facilities (California State Parks 1991, p.
120). There are multiple existing structures within the park, and any
new structures must provide for visitors' needs without competing for
attention with historical buildings or the natural setting. All new
development must be sensitive to that purpose of providing appropriate
visitor facilities without detracting from the historical and natural
setting of La Purisima Mission (California State Parks 1991, p. 121).
Additionally, Burton Mesa chaparral habitat areas are designated as
low-intensity use areas (California State Parks 1991, p. 66).
Therefore, any new development is unlikely to impact Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat in the park.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. No
conservation measures are proposed for the threat of utility
maintenance actions within the park; however, there is no indication
that the maintenance activities for existing utilities have affected
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species. California State Parks' resource
management programs try to remove or control invasive, nonnative
species and reestablish indigenous native species (California State
Parks 2013). Stands of veldt grass and pampas grass within Burton Mesa
chaparral were chemically treated in 2009 and 2010 (California State
Parks 2010, p. 3). Veldt grass removal efforts have focused on hand
removal in areas where it is encroaching into intact native habitat and
into sparsely vegetated areas where native annual herbs grow, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower. California State Parks received funding from
the Service's Coastal Program in August 2012 and anticipates commencing
veldt grass eradication efforts in 2013 to enhance Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat (Service 2012c, pp. 5-6). Specifically, California
State Parks will enhance 91 ac (37 ha) of upland habitat surrounding
extant occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower by removing veldt grass
(Service 2012c, entire).
(4) Fire. California State Parks requires that a wildfire
management plan be developed for every State Park. They developed a
general management plan in 1991 and stated their intent to continue to
work with the Santa Barbara County Fire Department, the California
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, local fire districts, and
other appropriate agencies to implement and keep this plan current
(California State Parks 1991, p. 57). In 2007, California State Parks
initiated development of a wildfire management plan that would include
management strategies to protect the existing infrastructure
(buildings) and protect cultural resources and biological resources of
the park (which would include Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat), as well
as informing fire suppression agencies of the areas with high-value
resources and the limits of fire suppression activities in those areas.
No prescribed burns currently occur within the park (Cox 2013, pers.
comm).
(5) Recreation. As part of the general management plan, California
State Parks developed a trail management plan to reduce conflicts
between recreational use and historical values of the park (California
State Parks 1991, pp. 5, 109). Consideration will be given to
designating trails for specific types of uses and constructing new
trail segments to avoid conflicts (California State Parks 1991, p. 65).
The trail system requires continual brush and erosion control, in which
California State Parks often relies on numerous volunteers such as
scouts and environmental groups to assist the park each year in various
projects, from litter pickup to trail construction (California State
Parks 1991, p. 109). A designated trail system would reduce the risk of
authorized recreational uses directly impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat. However, as described above in the Recreation and Other Human
Impacts section, the best available information indicates that
recreational activities are currently having minimal to no effect on
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La Purisima Mission SHP.
[[Page 64863]]
Summary of Conservation Measures Undertaken for Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP
Management goals for the Air Force, CDFW, and California State
Parks in these plans include, but are not limited to, minimizing the
spread and impact of invasive, nonnative species; working with local
agencies to recognize the importance of, and resource protections
afforded to, sensitive species like Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat; and maintaining the natural resources of Burton Mesa,
especially Burton Mesa chaparral habitat. The Air Force, CDFW, and
California State Parks have attempted to address the greatest threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower by removing or chemically treating invasive,
nonnative plants on their lands, respectively. Working collaboratively
in some instances, the Service has funded and volunteered manpower to
help reduce the spread and impact of invasive, nonnative plants.
Overall, because implementation of the management plans is dependent
upon available funding and staffing, because of the quantity of
invasive, nonnative species that threaten Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat (Burton Mesa chaparral), and because of the difficulty
eradicating invasive, nonnative species once they become established on
Burton Mesa, the implementation of the management plans as currently
constituted would not eliminate the threats described in Factor A.
Summary of Factor A
Most of the historical loss of Burton Mesa chaparral is due to
military, residential, and commercial development that occurred in the
past and resulted in many developed areas that have existed for
decades, although historical loss of chaparral is also due to the
presence and expansion of invasive, nonnative plants. Prior to 1938,
there were approximately 23,550 ac (9,350 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral
(Hickson 1987, p. 34). In 2012, approximately 10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of
Burton Mesa chaparral remained, which represents a loss of 53 percent
of the original upland habitat (Service 2012a, unpublished data). Based
on the habitat characteristics of Burton Mesa chaparral, it is probable
that an equivalent percent loss of sandy openings that occur in-between
shrubs may have occurred over this timeframe (see Background--Habitat
section above).
The majority of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs is within Federal or State-owned lands and is
protected from development. Therefore, large-scale future development
of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral is not likely to occur and thus is
not a significant threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower. However, smaller
scale private property development; access to easements; maintenance of
utility, oil, and gas pipelines; fire and fire suppression; and
authorized and unauthorized recreational activities may continue to
take place throughout Burton Mesa. Some of these activities may occur
within Burton Mesa chaparral or adjacent to occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, resulting in the destruction and possible removal of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat and creating open areas for nonnative
plants to invade. Therefore, the direct destruction and alteration of
chaparral habitat could continue to occur on a relatively small scale
and is thus considered a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower both
currently and in the future.
The presence and proliferation of invasive, nonnative plants is a
threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat that has the most significant
impact to the species because nonnatives are spreading rapidly across
Burton Mesa. The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks are
implementing conservation measures to address the threat of nonnative
plants within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Nevertheless, invasive,
nonnative plants are present at all locations where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs, are known to alter native habitat, including that
of Vandenberg monkeyflower, and are reducing the abundance and
diversity of native plant species. Many of the nonnative species that
occur on Burton Mesa are species deemed to pose significant ecological
concerns because they displace native vegetation and occupy sandy
openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows. Additionally, development
that has fragmented the mesa, ground disturbances along easements, and
authorized and unauthorized recreational activities increase the
pathways for nonnative plants to establish and spread. Moreover, fire
increases the potential for the invasion of nonnative plants by
creating bare ground that facilitates the spread of nonnative
vegetation. Therefore, with the prevailing onshore wind, an abundant
upwind source of nonnative plants and seed, and continued ground
disturbances, we conclude that the presence and expansion of invasive,
nonnative plants is a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat both
currently and in the future.
Climate change may have potential impacts on Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat, such as increased temperatures and
decreased precipitation that would likely reduce suitable habitat.
However, because of the moderating influence of the ocean, the effect
of climate change on Burton Mesa flora may be moderated.
Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes
No available information indicates any impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower related to overutilization for commercial, recreational,
scientific, or educational purposes or that these activities would
increase in the future. Therefore, we do not consider this factor to be
a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower, nor do we expect it to be in the
future.
Factor C. Disease or Predation
There is no available information indicating any impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower related to disease or predation, or that
disease or predation may become a concern in the future. Therefore, we
do not consider disease or predation to be threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower, nor do we expect them to become threats in the future.
Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
Under this factor, we examine whether existing regulatory
mechanisms are inadequate to address the threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower discussed under other factors. We give strongest weight to
statutes and their implementing regulations, and management direction
that stems from those laws and regulations. They are nondiscretionary
and enforceable, and are considered a regulatory mechanism under this
analysis. Examples include State governmental actions enforced under a
State statute or constitution, or Federal action under statute.
Some other programs are more voluntary in nature or dependent on
available funding (see Conservation Measures Undertaken section above);
in those cases, we analyze the specific facts for that effort to
ascertain its effectiveness at mitigating the threat and the extent to
which it can be relied on in the future. Having evaluated the
significance of the threat as mitigated by any such conservation
efforts, we analyze under Factor D the extent to which existing
regulatory mechanisms adequately address the specific threats to the
species. Regulatory mechanisms,
[[Page 64864]]
if they exist, may preclude the need for listing if we determine that
such mechanisms adequately address the threats to the species such that
listing is not warranted.
Vandenberg monkeyflower is not federally or State-listed as
endangered or threatened. The Service added this species to the Federal
list of candidate species on November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222; see
Previous Federal Actions section above); however, candidate species are
afforded no protections under the Act. The California Native Plant
Society (CNPS) classifies this species as 1B.1, which denotes that a
taxon is seriously endangered in California (CNPS 2012).
State Regulations
The California Endangered Species Act (CESA) allows the Fish and
Game Commission to designate species, including plants, as threatened
or endangered. The CESA makes it illegal to import, export, ``take,''
possess, purchase, sell, or attempt to do any of those actions to
species that are designated as threatened, endangered, or candidates
for listing, unless permitted by CDFW. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not
listed as threatened or endangered under the CESA (CDFW 2012).
The Native Plant Protection Act (NPPA) was enacted in 1977 and
allows the Fish and Game Commission to designate plants as rare or
endangered. The NPPA prohibits take of endangered or rare native
plants, but includes some exceptions for agricultural and nursery
operations, emergencies, and (after properly notifying CDFW) vegetation
removal from canals, roads, and other sites, changes in land use, and
certain other situations. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not designated as
rare or endangered under the NPPA (CDFW 2012).
Ecological Reserves are established under California State law to
provide protection for rare, threatened, or endangered native plants,
wildlife, aquatic organisms, and specialized terrestrial or aquatic
habitat types. Likewise, the goal of the State Parks resource
management program is to protect, restore and maintain the natural
resources in the State Park System (see Conservation Measures
Undertaken section above).
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires a full
disclosure of the potential impacts that proposed projects on non-
Federal lands will have on the environment, including sensitive
resources. CEQA does not confer any protection to sensitive species,
but merely requires disclosure of potential impacts. Lead CEQA agencies
are also required to disclose potential impacts to CNPS list 1B.1
species, including Vandenberg monkeyflower. The lead agency for CEQA
analysis is the public agency with primary authority or jurisdiction
over the project, and is responsible for conducting a review of the
project and consulting with other agencies responsible for resources
affected by the project; this agency is typically a county, city, or
special district agency. Three proposed projects have undergone CEQA
analysis on Burton Mesa in recent years, and the CEQA process
adequately disclosed impacts of these projects (see County or Local
Regulations below for a discussion of the CEQA process for these three
proposed projects).
County and Local Regulations
(1) The County of Santa Barbara, which is the lead agency
responsible for CEQA review for projects on non-Federal lands where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs, approved the Clubhouse Estates
residential development in August 2005 (County of Santa Barbara
Planning Commission 2005) (see Factor A--Development for a description
of the project).
While the CEQA review disclosed impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat at the Clubhouse Estates project site, the CEQA review
does not afford protection to this species or its habitat. Therefore,
the County of Santa Barbara included conditions to their approval of
the Clubhouse Estates development project. County stipulations to the
Clubhouse Estates approval that would benefit Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat included: onsite habitat restoration and preservation
plan, an open space management plan, onsite habitat restoration, and
native plant propagation. Thus, the project proponent (LFR, Inc.)
developed a restoration, construction monitoring, and resource
protection plan to address the mitigation of native ecological
resources impacted by the development project, to provide for
restoration of disturbed habitat within the designated open space (Lot
54), and to describe ecological resource protection measures that would
be implemented during construction (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1, pp. 34-60).
The restoration plan was developed (LFR, Inc. 2006) but has not been
fully implemented, possibly due to the development project falling into
foreclosure in December 2009 (VVCSD 2011). Additionally, LFR, Inc.
conducted actions to further preserve Vandenberg monkeyflower by
collecting seeds and storing them at the Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
salvaging topsoil from where Vandenberg monkeyflower previously
occurred on the project site (which likely contained a seed bank), and
depositing the topsoil outside of the project site and within suitable
habitat, and transplanting three individual plants (McGowan in litt.
2007).
The County is also responsible for permitting other activities,
such as grading, according to Santa Barbara County Grading Code,
Chapter 14. A grading permit would have associated erosion and sediment
controls, including best management practices and other conditions of
approval that would minimize impacts to sensitive biological resources
(County of Santa Barbara Planning and Development 2013; LFR, Inc. 2006,
entire). Our records indicate that the Clubhouse Estates project site
was cleared prior to the developer's acquisition of a grading permit
from the County (Mooney in litt 2006; Meyer in litt. 2006). Thus, in
this case, County regulations concerning grading were inadequate to
ensure proper implementation of the permitting process, which would
have included implementing the conditions of approval that serve to
minimize impacts to sensitive biological resources. As a result,
clearing the Clubhouse Estates project site destroyed Burton Mesa
chaparral that was occupied by Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals and
removed adjacent habitat that likely harbored a seed bank (Meyer in
litt. 2010b; see Development--Private Lands under Factor A).
Additionally, this unpermitted ground disturbance created open areas
where veldt grass and Sahara mustard have expanded to areas where they
did not occur prior to the vegetation being cleared from the project
site (Meyer in litt. 2010b; see Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above).
(2) The City of Lompoc conducted a CEQA review for the Burton Ranch
(see Factor A--Development for a description of the project).
Approximately 141 of 149 ac (57 of 60 ha) of the project site would be
developed, including removal of 83 ac (34 ha) of chaparral habitat on
Burton Mesa. No Vandenberg monkeyflower has been observed within this
project site. A 100-ft (30-ha) buffer between the development and the
Reserve boundary to the north of the project site and 10 ac (4 ha) of
onsite open space were proposed as part of the project (SAIC 2005a).
Additionally, to mitigate for the removal of native vegetation at the
Burton Ranch project site, the project proponent completed a
conservation easement with the Land Trust for Santa
[[Page 64865]]
Barbara County (Land Trust) that will protect 95 ac (38 ha) of land
featuring unique Burton Mesa chaparral, coastal scrub and oak savannah
habitat near Vandenberg Village, an area that is known as the Burton
Ranch Chaparral Preserve (Feeney in litt. 2012). The Land Trust
received this 95 ac (38 ha) and will monitor the property and work with
CDFW to protect and enhance the ecological resources of the site (Land
Trust 2013). This area straddles adjacent portions of the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve and is connected to the Reserve via walking trails
(Land Trust in litt. 2011).
(3) The Allan Hancock College District conducted the CEQA analysis
for a proposal to construct a public safety complex at Allan Hancock
College (see Factor A--Development section for a description of the
project). The proposal includes removal of at least 40 ac (16 ha) of
chaparral habitat on Burton Mesa along the northern project boundary
that is contiguous with the Davis Creek drainage. Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been observed within this project site.
Approximately 105 of the 200 ac (42 of 81 ha) of the site is covered
with chaparral habitat and, minus the 40 ac (16 ha) of chaparral within
the project footprint, approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of chaparral habitat
that is contiguous would be preserved (Allan Hancock College 2009, pp.
9, 135). Preserving chaparral in this area may reduce the potential for
nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa chaparral that is
contiguous with the Reserve to the north of this project site.
Despite implementation of the CEQA process and disclosure of the
impacts to this species or its habitat, these projects illustrate that
development can constitute a direct threat (removal of Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals) to Vandenberg monkeyflower and/or suitable
habitat, and this threat is present and is expected to continue into
the future (see Development--Private Lands section under Factor A
above) within Burton Mesa chaparral (Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat)
on non-Federal lands. Threats to the habitat are exacerbated because
ground-disturbing projects further fragment chaparral habitat and
create open areas (i.e., vectors) for invasive, nonnative plants to
establish and further expand into Burton Mesa (see the Invasive,
Nonnative Species section above).
Federal Regulations
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires full
disclosure of potential impacts that proposed projects on Federal lands
or with Federal involvement will have on the environment, including
sensitive resources. The NEPA process would apply to projects proposed
on Vandenberg AFB and projects on non-Federal lands that include a
Federal nexus, such as funding or permitting by a Federal agency. The
NEPA analysis, like CEQA, does not confer any protection to sensitive
species, but merely discloses potential impacts. Although Federal
agencies may include conservation measures for Vandenberg monkeyflower
as a result of the NEPA process, any such measures are typically
voluntary in nature and are not required by statute.
For example, although the Vandenberg monkeyflower is not yet a
federally threatened or endangered species, it is recognized by
Vandenberg AFB as a species deserving of conservation measures as
demonstrated by the Air Force's recent submittal of a proposal to
include Vandenberg monkeyflower in their INRMP (Air Force 2012). The
Air Force could include conservation measures for Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat as a result of the NEPA process. The NEPA
would not itself regulate activities that might affect Vandenberg
monkeyflower, but it would require full evaluation and disclosure of
information regarding the effects of contemplated Federal actions on
sensitive species and their habitats.
The Sikes Act requires the Department of Defense to develop and
implement INRMPs for military installations in the United States.
INRMPs direct the management and use of the lands on a military
installation and are prepared in cooperation with the Service and State
fish and wildlife agencies (i.e., CDFW) to ensure proper consideration
of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs (see Conservation Measures
Undertaken section above for more discussion of Vandenberg AFB's
INRMP).
Summary of Factor D
The existing regulatory mechanisms at the Federal and State levels
require evaluation of potential actions that may impact Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat on Burton Mesa. At the Federal level, the
NEPA only requires evaluation of impacts to the human environment. The
Sikes Act requires military installations to develop INRMPs to ensure
proper consideration of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs on their
lands. However, no protections are in place at the local, State, and
Federal levels that are intended to protect a plant species that is not
Federally or State-listed, although Vandenberg AFB has proposed to
include this species in their INRMP. Additionally, at least one
incident of unauthorized grading occurred without following the
required local permit process; loss of Vandenberg monkeyflower
individuals and habitat was documented.
Federal and State ownership of much of the occupied Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and the regulatory purposes that define the use of
those Federal and State lands protect the species from direct losses of
habitat and provide further protection from many of the forms of
disturbance described above. However, the current regulatory regime
does not address the majority of impacts associated with loss of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat (i.e., development of private lands
that result in habitat loss, fire and fire suppression efforts,
authorized and unauthorized recreation activities, and the invasion and
expansion of invasive, nonnative species). As described above under
Factor A, the primary threat with the greatest severity and magnitude
of impact to Vandenberg monkeyflower is invasive, nonnative species
invasion and expansion. The existing regulatory mechanisms currently in
place at the local, State, and national levels are inadequate to
address this threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued
Existence
Competition for Resources With Invasive, Nonnative Species
In Factor A, we discussed how invasive, nonnative plants alter the
habitat that supports Vandenberg monkeyflower. In this section, we
discuss how invasive, nonnative plants compete with individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower for light, water, and soil nutrients.
Invasion of nonnative plants and in particular nonnative grasses
are a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower because small annuals such as
this species most likely cannot compete with fast-growing nonnative
plants for light, water, and soil nutrients (refer to Barrows et al.
2009; Lambrinos 2000; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992). Grasses have long
been recognized as effective competitors with herbaceous and woody
species (Davis and Mooney 1985; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992).
(1) Sunlight. Rapidly growing nonnative grasses can reduce light at
the soil surface and thereby reduce the photosynthetic ability of
competitors (Thompson 1991, pp. 394-395). Like certain other annual
Diplacus taxa,
[[Page 64866]]
Vandenberg monkeyflower only grows in habitats with little to no
competition from invasive, nonnative plants (VFWO 2013). As described
in Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants, high densities of veldt grass
would easily overtop Vandenberg monkeyflower because of monkeyflower's
small stature, which in turn creates shaded conditions that are not
suitable for germination and growth of Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Additionally, Sahara mustard is able to form a canopy up to 3 ft (1 m)
aboveground; this forces the native plants growing under the canopy to
put more energy into growing taller at the expense of producing
branches, flowers, and fruits (Barrows et al. 2009, p. 683). Therefore,
because veldt grass and Sahara mustard grow taller in stature and more
quickly than Vandenberg monkeyflower, these invading nonnative plants
would likely shade and reduce the productivity and survival of
Vandenberg monkeyflower where these species occur in close proximity to
one another. Veldt grass in particular is of immediate concern given
its presence at: (1) All of the Vandenberg monkeyflower extant
occurrences; and (2) one potentially extirpated occurrence (i.e., Lower
Santa Lucia Canyon (Meyer in litt. 2012c)), where veldt grass is a
dominant species within the sandy openings and where herbs that are
commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower are absent.
(2) Water and Soil Nutrients. Nonnative grasses compete effectively
with native species for water and soil nutrients (D'Antonio and
Vitousek 1992, p. 70). The effective uptake of water and nutrients by
grasses is the result of their dense shallow root systems. The root
systems of most woody species are deeper and less dense than those of
grasses; once woody species become large, they are generally thought to
have access to moisture and nutrients from portions of the soil profile
below grass roots (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 70). Shallow-rooted
herbs that occur in open areas were found to deplete soil moisture to a
maximum depth of 1.6 ft (0.5 m); grassland plants had roots active to
2.5 ft (0.75 m); and chaparral had roots extending below 6.6 ft (2.0 m)
(Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 525). Therefore, grasses are most effective
as competitors against seedlings and shallow-rooted annuals rather than
saplings or adults of woody species (Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 528;
D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 70). However, Knoop and Walker (1985,
p. 249) demonstrated that grasses can reduce water availability in the
subsoil at a depth of 1 to 4.25 ft (0.3 to 1.3 m) where shrub roots are
common.
Many examples exist of invasive, nonnative plants outcompeting
native herbs and shrubs for water and soil nutrients, some of which
include the following:
(1) Davis and Mooney (1985, p. 528) demonstrated across a
grassland-chaparral ecotone in Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve
(approximately 7.5 mi (12 km) west of Palo Alto, California) that bare-
zone annual herbs, such as Navarretia heterodoxa (Calistoga
pincushionplant) and Lessingia germanorum var. glandulifera (valley
lessingia), would be poor competitors against grassland species, in
part, because these annual plants are shallow rooted and nonnative
annual grasses are able to deplete the water in shallow soil.
(2) Eliason and Allen (1997, p. 252) conducted a study in the Santa
Margarita Ecological Reserve (near Temecula, California) and determined
that the growth and survival of transplanted Artemisia californica
(California sagebrush) seedlings was significantly reduced in the
presence of Mediterranean annual grasses from germination through the
first growing season. This effect was due to the depletion of soil
water because young California sagebrush and nonnative annual grasses
are both shallow rooted.
(3) Melgoza et al. (1990, pp. 11-12) conducted a study in Belle
Flats (approximately 22 mi (35 km) north of Reno, Nevada) and
demonstrated that competition with Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass)
negatively affected the productivity and water status of native
perennial species. Melgoza et al. (1990, pp. 7, 11-12) found cheatgrass
suppressed productivity of native species for an extended period of
time (12 years after a fire) once it was established in open areas
around native species, thus enhancing its capability after a fire to
exploit soil resources and enhance its status in the community.
Because individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower are small in stature
(growing up to 10 in (25.4 cm) tall), invasive, nonnative plants that
grow taller in stature and quicker than this species (such as veldt
grass and Sahara mustard; see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants and
Anthropogenic Fire section) may inhibit the growth and production of
Vandenberg monkeyflower attempting to grow nearby. Moreover, because
Vandenberg monkeyflower likely is shallow rooted like other small
annual plants that grow in sandy openings within chaparral, invasive,
nonnative grasses that occur within and near the species are likely
outcompeting it by depleting the water at shallow depths and soil
nutrients that it requires. Veldt grass is of particular concern
because: (1) It is present at nine (100 percent) of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower extant occurrences and one potentially extirpated
occurrence (i.e., Lower Santa Lucia Canyon); and (2) it has deep-
reaching roots that are able to tolerate Mediterranean climates
(Tothill 1962, pp 132-161). Thus, veldt grass could deplete the water
and soil nutrients that would otherwise be available for Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
Small Population Size and Restricted Range
According to the criteria put forth by the World Conservation
Union, as modified for plants, a species that has life history,
population, and distribution attributes similar to those of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is considered to have a high risk of extinction in the
wild in the immediate future (Keith 1998, pp. 1085-1087). Species with
few populations and individuals are vulnerable to the threat of
naturally occurring events, which can cause extinction through
mechanisms operating either at the genetic, population, or landscape
level (Shaffer 1981, pp. 131-134; Primack 1998, pp. 279-308).
Environmental stochasticity is annual variation in reproduction and
death rates in response to weather, disease, competition, predation, or
other factors external to the population (Shaffer 1981, p. 131).
Natural catastrophes or prolonged drought could also result in the
extirpation of a small population (Shaffer 1981, p. 131).
The genetic characteristics of Vandenberg monkeyflower have not
been investigated; therefore, the degree to which genetic
characteristics contribute to the likelihood of this species being
vulnerable to extinction is unknown. However, random events operating
at the population and landscape levels may increase the chance of
extinction for Vandenberg monkeyflower. Although data are not available
to determine population trends for this species, the best available
information gained from multiple survey years between 2003 and 2012
indicate that 3 occurrences (33 percent) have fewer than 100
individuals. Six occurrences (67 percent) were recently shown to harbor
more than 100 individuals, and 2 of those 6 occurrences (22 percent)
contained more than 1,000 individuals (see Current Status of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower section above). Numbers of plants observed during the most
recent surveys are low for the three occurrences that have historically
had
[[Page 64867]]
fewer than 100 individuals observed (but a seed bank may still exist):
(1) Four individuals were found in 2006 at Oak Canyon, although no
individuals were found during the most recent surveys in 2010 and 2012
(VFWO 2013; Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in litt. 2012b; Rutherford in
litt. 2012).
(2) Twenty-five individuals were found in 2006 at the Santa Lucia
Canyon occurrence, and one individual was found during the most recent
survey in 2010 (Ballard 2006; Lum in litt. 2012b).
(3) Five individuals were found in 2003 at the Volans Avenue
occurrence, one in 2007, and no plants were found in other years
surveyed between 2004 and 2009 (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt.
2007).
Vandenberg monkeyflower fits the profile of a species that is
considered to have small population numbers for an annual plant and is
vulnerable to extinction because it has a restricted geographic range,
and less than 10 known occurrences with less than 10,000 mature
individuals (Keith 1998, pp. 1085-1087) (see Distribution of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower--Current Status section above). Additionally, the
potential further fragmentation of habitat and resulting increased
isolation of Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences affect the species
rangewide by increasing the risk of population loss and potentially
subsequent loss of genetic characteristics.
Species with few populations or those with low numbers may be
subject to forces at the population level that affect their ability to
complete their life cycles successfully. The number and density of
flowering plants in a population can be important determinants of
pollinator abundance and behavior (Jennersten 1988, pp. 361-363;
Bernhardt et al. 2008, p. 948). Reduced numbers of individuals of
flowering plants may lead to a reduction in abundance of pollinators
and subsequent seed set and fitness of seed progeny (Menges 1991, p.
162). Specific information is not available for Vandenberg
monkeyflower; however, these studies on other plant-pollinator
relationships point out the importance of pollinators that is likely
applicable to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
The invasion of nonnative plants has the ability to reduce the
abundance of pollinators, which can have deleterious effects on
reproduction of native plants. Jennersten (1988, p. 363) found that
insect diversity, insect visitation rates to Dianthus deltoides (maiden
pink), and number of seeds produced were significantly reduced where
maiden pink was in a more fragmented habitat compared to continuous
habitat. Lambrinos (2000, pp. 228) found that invasion of nonnative
plants such as pampas grass can reduce the abundance of pollinators
because pampas grass replaces nectar- and pollen-rich flowers of native
shrubs and reduces the diversity of feeding sites provided by woody
perennials. Lambrinos (2000, p. 227) also noted that arthropod (spiders
and insects) abundance is lower overall, and known to be absent in
areas dominated by pampas grass. In contrast, Bernhardt et al. (2008,
p. 948) found that pollination of a native species such as Lupinus
perennis (sundial lupine) increased with both population size and
population density, which significantly affected insect visitation
rates. Therefore, because Vandenberg monkeyflower has less than 10
occurrences, consists of low numbers of individuals, and invasive,
nonnative plants are replacing native vegetation of Burton Mesa, this
species may experience reduced reproduction because of reduced
visitation by insect pollinators. However, we are unaware of specific
information concerning the extent to which this may be a threat for
Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Annual plants that are subject to wide fluctuations in population
numbers from year to year, such as Vandenberg monkeyflower, may have
difficulty maintaining a viable population size after a series of poor
seed-production years. Additionally, if the host plants (plants being
visited by pollinators) are partially self-incompatible, reduction in
population size may lead to increased self-pollination and may reduce
the level of genetic variability. At the landscape level, random
natural events, such as storms, drought, or fire, could destroy a
significant percentage of individuals or entire populations. Because
Vandenberg monkeyflower comprises a small number of locations and
individuals, and is restricted to a small geographic area on Burton
Mesa, this species' risk of extinction increases from such naturally
occurring events. No empirical information is available to estimate
trends for Vandenberg monkeyflower populations; however, the continued
decrease in habitat (especially from nonnative plant invasions) is
contributing to habitat fragmentation and impacting the species'
ability to persist.
Recreation
Recreational use occurs on Burton Mesa within Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP. We discussed the effects to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat resulting from recreational use (see
Factor A--Recreation); however, recreational activities may also result
in trampling individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower. The Volans Avenue
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower is adjacent to a sewer line
easement that is also used for hiking and dog walking. Recreational
users are encouraged to stay within existing and designated trails (see
Factor A--Recreation). No other location where this species occurs is
adjacent to designated trails. Therefore, the best available
information indicates that recreational activities involving casual
human use are having minimal effect on individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Unauthorized recreational activities such as mountain
biking and ORV use have resulted in damaged native vegetation, and
squashed and sometimes broken plant parts (Meyer in litt. 2010c; Meyer
in litt. 2013). Determining where the unauthorized ORV activity
originates on the Reserve is difficult because of the historical
network of trails and roads. Available information does not indicate
the extent and degree to which ORV activity and mountain biking may be
impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals.
Summary of Factor E
Competition for light, water, and soil nutrients from invasive,
nonnative vegetation, particularly nonnative grasses, is a threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Because this species has a restricted range
and small population numbers, it is vulnerable to naturally occurring
events such as a wildfire, storms, and drought that could negatively
affect its growth and productivity. Additionally, because of the
restricted range, small number of individuals at each occurrence, and
the spread of invasive, nonnative plants adjacent to each occurrence,
this species is vulnerable to a reduction of visits by pollinating
insects. The best available information indicates that casual
recreational use has a minimal impact to individuals. Unauthorized
recreational uses (ORVs and mountain biking) have the potential to
result in damage to the native vegetation; however, the best
information available does not indicate a direct threat to individuals
of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Indirect effects of potential ground
disturbance could create openings in the vegetation and assist the seed
spread and establishment of nonnative vegetation. Therefore, we
conclude that competition for resources with invasive, nonnative
species and small population size and restricted range are threats to
[[Page 64868]]
Vandenberg monkeyflower currently and in the future.
Combination of Factors
Many of the threats discussed above act in concert, and the
resulting effects to Vandenberg monkeyflower are amplified. For
example, some land uses and development or maintenance activities
(Factor A) create ground disturbance and subsequent openings in the
vegetation where nonnative plants (Factor A) can invade, expand, and
outcompete native vegetation (Factor E). Fires on Burton Mesa (Factor
A) result in an increase in nonnative vegetation (Factor A). Similarly,
an abundance of nonnative vegetation, particularly grasses (Factor A
and E), may result in an increase in fire frequency (Factor A). The
availability of habitat and small overall population size (Factor E)
may be affected in a changing climate and by events such as wildfire
(Factor A). Thus, Vandenberg monkeyflower's productivity may be reduced
because of these threats, either singularly or in combination. Existing
regulatory mechanisms have not proven effective at protecting
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat from these threats (Factor D).
The presence of invasive plants is the most significant threat to
this species, both alone and in combination with other Factors (e.g.,
anthropogenic fire, recreation). The combination of factors would
likely create a cumulative or synergistic threat to the existence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Given these circumstances, the combined
effects of current threats to the population put the species at risk
rangewide, although the magnitude or extent of such threats to the
viability of the species is not at this time determinable from
available information.
Proposed Determination
We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to Vandenberg monkeyflower. We have identified threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower attributable to Factors A, D, and E.
In the summary of the threats described in detail above, we found
that Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat on Burton Mesa has been
displaced by military, residential, and commercial development,
although the most significant ongoing threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower
is the loss of habitat due to the presence and continual spread of
invasive, nonnative plants (Factor A). Approximately 53 percent of
Burton Mesa chaparral habitat has been lost, with only 10,057 ac (4,070
ha) of the 23,550 ac (9,350 ha) that existed before 1938 remaining.
Additionally, invasive, nonnative plants, in particular veldt
grass, are present and continuing to expand at all nine extant
locations. No Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals have been observed at
the three smallest extant locations (in the last 3 years at one
location and the last 6 years at the other two locations) even though a
residual seed bank is likely present. Burton Mesa chaparral is also
subject to an anthropogenic fire regime that can increase the presence
of invasive plants (Factor A). Casual human recreational use and
utility maintenance activities can contribute to habitat disturbance
that facilitates pathways for nonnative species to invade Burton Mesa
chaparral habitat (Factor A).
Furthermore, invasive, nonnative plants are likely competing with
Vandenberg monkeyflower for sunlight, water, and soil resources, and
the species' restricted range and small population size makes it
vulnerable to changing environmental conditions due to climate change
and other random, naturally occurring events (Factor E). Small
population size is a highlighted concern in part due to the low number
of individuals found to exist at the 3 smallest extant occurrences, in
particular 3 of the 9 occurrences that have a range of 0 to 25
individuals documented between 2003 and 2012. The threats described
above for Vandenberg monkeyflower occur across its entire range,
resulting in a negative impact on the species' distribution, abundance,
and probability of long-term persistence. Existing regulatory
mechanisms are not adequate to protect the species or its habitat from
these identified threats (Factor D).
The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range
within the foreseeable future.'' We find that Vandenberg monkeyflower
has a restricted range and is facing ongoing and projected threats
across its range. We conclude that it meets the definition of an
endangered species throughout its entire range due primarily to: (1)
The invasion, spread, and competition of invasive, nonnative species at
all nine extant locations; and (2) small population size that makes it
vulnerable to stochastic events. These impacts are heightened due to
anthropogenic fire conditions that promote further invasion of
nonnative species; recreation and other human activities that
contribute to the spread of invasive, nonnative species; and continued
development on private lands that further reduces and fragments the
remaining suitable habitat. The threats to its continued existence are
not commencing in the foreseeable future (which would result in a
status determination of a threatened species), but are immediate and
ongoing. We base this determination on the immediacy, severity, and
scope of the threats described above. Therefore, on the basis of the
best available scientific and commercial information, we propose
listing Vandenberg monkeyflower as an endangered species in accordance
with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act.
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it meets the definition of an endangered or
threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its
range. The Vandenberg monkeyflower that is proposed for listing in this
rule is highly restricted in its range and the threats occur throughout
its range. Therefore, we assessed the status of Vandenberg monkeyflower
throughout its entire range. The threats to the survival of the species
occur throughout the species range and are not restricted to any
particular significant portion of that range. Accordingly, our
assessment and proposed determination applies to the species throughout
its entire range.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness and
conservation by Federal, State, Tribal, and local agencies, private
organizations, and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the
States and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed
species. The protection required by Federal agencies and the
prohibitions against certain activities are discussed, in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these
listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and
implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the
[[Page 64869]]
identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning
components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed, preparation of a draft and final
recovery plan, and revisions to the plan as significant new information
becomes available. The recovery outline guides the immediate
implementation of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to
be used to develop a recovery plan. The recovery plan identifies site-
specific management actions that will achieve recovery of the species,
measurable criteria that indicate when a species may be downlisted or
delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress. Recovery plans
also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate their recovery
efforts and provide estimates of the cost of implementing recovery
tasks. Recovery teams (comprising species experts, Federal and State
agencies, nongovernmental organizations, or stakeholders) are often
established to develop recovery plans. If a final listing rule is
completed for Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Service will develop and
complete a recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final
recovery plan that will be available on our Web site (https://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal
agencies, States, Tribal, nongovernmental organizations, businesses,
and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat
restoration (for example, restoration of native vegetation), research,
captive propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. The
recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on
Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-
Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species requires
cooperative conservation efforts on private, State, and Tribal lands.
If this species is listed, funding for recovery actions may be
available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State
programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the
academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. Additionally,
pursuant to section 6 of the Act, the State of California would be
eligible for Federal funds to implement management actions that promote
the protection and recovery of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Information on
our grant programs that are available to aid species recovery can be
found at: https://www.fws.gov/grants.
Although Vandenberg monkeyflower is only proposed for listing under
the Act at this time, please let us know if you are interested in
participating in recovery efforts for this species. Additionally, we
invite you to submit any new information on this species whenever it
becomes available and any information you may have for recovery
planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act requires Federal agencies to evaluate their
actions with respect to any species that is proposed or listed as
endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical habitat, if
any is designated. Regulations implementing this interagency
cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402.
Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to confer with the
Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of a species proposed for listing or result in destruction or
adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a species is
listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal
agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible
Federal agency must enter into consultation with the Service.
Federal agencies proposing activities within the species' habitat
that may need to conference or consult or both with the Service as
described in the preceding paragraph include the Department of Defense,
the Bureau of Prisons, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and
the Federal Highway Administration. Activities potentially include
management and any other landscape-altering activities on Federal lands
administered by the Department of Defense or the Bureau of Prisons,
issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act permits by the Army Corps of
Engineers, construction and management of gas pipeline and power line
ROWs licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and funding
by the Federal Highway Administration for the construction and
maintenance of roads or highways.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to endangered plants.
All prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR
17.61, apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any
person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to import or
export, transport in interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a
commercial activity, sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign
commerce, or remove and reduce the species to possession from areas
under Federal jurisdiction. Additionally, for plants listed as
endangered, the Act prohibits the malicious damage or destruction on
areas under Federal jurisdiction and the removal, cutting, digging up,
or damaging or destroying of such plants in knowing violation of any
State law or regulation, including State criminal trespass law. Certain
exceptions to the prohibitions apply to agents of the Service and State
conservation agencies. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not currently
designated as rare or endangered under the NPPA or the CESA (CDFW
2012).
CEQA requires a full disclosure of the potential impacts that
proposed projects on non-Federal lands will have on the environment,
including sensitive resources. However, CEQA does not confer any
protection to sensitive species, but merely discloses potential
impacts. The lead agency for CEQA analysis is the public agency with
primary authority or jurisdiction over the project, and is responsible
for conducting a review of the project and consulting with other
agencies responsible for resources affected by the project. Under CEQA,
lead agencies are required to disclose potential impacts from proposals
to CNPS list 1B.1 species; this mechanism may indirectly provide some
protection to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened wildlife and plant species under
certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50
CFR 17.62 for endangered plant species, and at 17.72 for threatened
plant species.
It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1,
1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at
the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of the effects of a proposed
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of the
species proposed for
[[Page 64870]]
listing. The following activities could potentially result in a
violation of section 9 of the Act; this list is not comprehensive:
Removing and reducing to possession Vandenberg monkeyflower from
areas under Federal jurisdiction; malicious damage or destruction of
Vandenberg monkeyflower from areas under Federal jurisdiction;
unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling, delivering,
carrying, or transport across State lines and import or export across
international boundaries, except for properly documented antique
specimens of these taxa at least 100 years old, as defined by section
10(h)(1) of the Act.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Ventura
Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Requests for copies of the regulations concerning listed plants and
general inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed
to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Permits,
Regional Recovery Permit Coordinator, Carlsbad Fish and Wildlife
Office, 6010 Hidden Valley Road, Suite 101, Carlsbad, California 92011;
(telephone 760-431-9440 ext. 225; facsimile 760-930-0846).
Peer Review
In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek the expert
opinions of at least three appropriate and independent specialists
regarding this proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is to ensure
that our listing determination is based on scientifically sound data,
assumptions, and analyses. We have invited these peer reviewers to
comment during this public comment period.
We will consider all comments and information received during this
comment period on this proposed rule during our preparation of a final
determination. Accordingly, the final decision may differ from this
proposal.
Public Hearings
Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings
on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45
days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the Federal
Register. Such requests must be sent to the address shown in FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will schedule public hearings on this
proposal, if any are requested, and announce the dates, times, and
places of those hearings, as well as how to obtain reasonable
accommodations, in the Federal Register and local newspapers at least
15 days before the hearing.
Required Determinations
Clarity of the Rule
We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
(1) Be logically organized;
(2) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
(3) Use clear language rather than jargon;
(4) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
(5) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us
comments by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To better help us
revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as possible. For
example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections or paragraphs
that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences are too long,
the sections where you feel lists or tables would be useful, etc.
Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501 et seq.)
This rule does not contain any new collections of information that
require approval by OMB under the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44
U.S.C. 3501 et seq.). This rule will not impose recordkeeping or
reporting requirements on State or local governments, individuals,
businesses, or organizations. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and
a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information
unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number.
National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)
We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the NEPA (42
U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be prepared in connection with listing a
species as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act.
We published a notice outlining our reasons for this determination in
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
It is our position that, outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. Court
of Appeals for the 10th Circuit, we do not need to prepare
environmental analyses pursuant to NEPA in connection with designating
critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act. We published a
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). This position was upheld by
the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit (Douglas County v.
Babbitt, 48 F.3d 1495 (9th Cir. 1995), cert. denied 516 U.S. 1042
(1996)).]
References Cited
A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available
on the Internet at https://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. FWS-ES-R8-
2013-0078 and upon request from the Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Authors
The primary authors of this package are the staff members of the
Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; 4201-4245; unless
otherwise noted.
0
2. In Sec. 17.12(h) add an entry for ``Diplacus vandenbergensis
(Vandenberg monkeyflower) to the List of Endangered and Threatened
Plants in alphabetical order under Flowering Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
[[Page 64871]]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
-------------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family Status When listed Critical Special
Scientific name Common name habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flowering Plants
* * * * * * *
Diplacus vandenbergensis......... Vandenberg U.S.A. (CA)........ Phrymaceae......... E ........... ........... NA
monkeyflower.
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dated: September 30, 2013.
Rowan W. Gould,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2013-25397 Filed 10-28-13; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P