Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Finding on a Petition To List the Redrock Stonefly as Endangered or Threatened, 46251-46266 [2011-19447]

Agencies

• Fish and Wildlife Service
• DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

[Federal Register Volume 76, Number 148 (Tuesday, August 2, 2011)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 46251-46266]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2011-19447]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R2-ES-2011-0047; MO 92210-0-0008-B2]


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Finding 
on a Petition To List the Redrock Stonefly as Endangered or Threatened

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Notice of 12-month petition finding.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), announce a 
12-month finding on a petition to list the Redrock stonefly 
(Anacroneuria wipukupa) as endangered or threatened and to designate 
critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. 
After review of all available scientific and commercial information, we 
find that listing the Redrock stonefly is not warranted at this time. 
However, we ask the public to submit to us any new information that 
becomes available concerning the threats to the Redrock stonefly or its 
habitat at any time.

DATES: The finding announced in this document was made on August 2, 
2011.

ADDRESSES: This finding is available on the Internet at https://www.regulations.gov at Docket Number FWS-R2-ES-2011-0047. Supporting 
documentation we used in preparing this finding is available for public 
inspection, by appointment, during normal business hours at the U.S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service, Arizona Ecological Services Office, 2321 
West Royal Palm Road, Suite 103, Phoenix, AZ 85021. Please submit any 
new information, materials, comments, or questions concerning this 
finding to the above street address.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Steve Spangle, Field Supervisor, 
Arizona Ecological Services Office (see ADDRESSES); by telephone at 
602-242-0210; or by facsimile at 602-242-2534. If you use a 
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), please call the Federal 
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

    Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), requires that, for any petition 
to revise the Federal Lists of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife and 
Plants that contains substantial scientific or commercial information 
that listing the species may be warranted, we make a finding within 12 
months of the date of receipt of the petition. In this finding, we will 
determine that the petitioned action is: (1) Not warranted, (2) 
warranted, or (3) warranted, but the immediate proposal of a regulation 
implementing the petitioned action is precluded by other pending 
proposals to determine whether species are endangered or threatened, 
and expeditious progress is being made to add or remove qualified 
species from the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 
and Plants. Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires that we treat a 
petition for which the requested action is found to be warranted but 
precluded as though resubmitted on the date of such finding, that is, 
requiring a subsequent finding to be made within 12 months. We must 
publish these 12-month findings in the Federal Register.

Previous Federal Actions

    On June 25, 2007, we received a formal petition dated June 18, 
2007, from WildEarth Guardians requesting that we list the Redrock 
stonefly as either endangered or threatened and

[[Page 46252]]

that critical habitat be designated under the Act. This species was 
part of a petition to list 475 species in the southwestern United 
States. WildEarth Guardians incorporated all analyses, references, and 
documentation provided by NatureServe in its online database at https://www.natureserve.org into the petition. This included information 
produced by the Natural Heritage Network, particularly the Heritage 
Data Management System compiled by the Arizona Game and Fish Department 
(AGFD) (AGFD 2004, pp. 1-3).
    Relative to the Redrock stonefly, the petition provided information 
on the species' current distribution, indicating it was limited to Oak 
Creek, Yavapai County, Arizona. The remaining information was general 
in nature describing factors that influence the entire stonefly order. 
The petition clearly identified itself as a petition and included the 
identification information required at 50 CFR 424.14(a). We sent a 
letter to the petitioners dated July 11, 2007, acknowledging receipt of 
the petition and stating that the petition was under review. The 90-day 
finding was published in the Federal Register on December 16, 2009 (74 
FR 66866). This notice constitutes the 12-month finding on the June 18, 
2007, petition to list the Redrock stonefly as endangered or 
threatened.

Species Information

Taxonomy and Species Description
    The Redrock stonefly is an aquatic insect in the Family Perlidae 
and the Order Plecoptera. Immature stoneflies, or nymphs, are aquatic 
and generally live in cold-water streams. The nymphs have external 
gills, which may be present on almost any part of the body. Nymphs 
appear very similar to adults but lack wings (Stewart and Harper 1996, 
p. 218). Most stonefly nymphs are herbivorous, feeding on submerged 
leaves and algae, but other stonefly species are predaceous and feed on 
other aquatic macroinvertebrates (Stewart and Harper 1996, p. 217). 
Stoneflies remain in nymph form for 1 to 3 years, depending on species, 
before emerging and becoming terrestrial adults (Bouchard 2004, p. 77). 
Adult stoneflies generally only survive for a few weeks, and emerge 
only during specific times of the year. Some adult stoneflies do not 
feed at all, but those that do are herbivorous.
    The family Perlidae includes relatively large, predaceous 
stoneflies. They have external gills found on three thoracic (middle 
body) segments (Bouchard 2004, p. 85). The Anacroneuria genus is the 
largest genus in the Perlidae family, primarily occurring in the 
Neotropical regions of Central and South America (Jewitt 1958, p. 159; 
Bispo and Froehlich 2004, p. 191). There are 231 described and 19 
undescribed species within this genus occurring from the southernmost 
United States to South America (DeWalt et al. 2010, p. 1). The genus 
Anacroneuria expanded northward into Central America, Texas, and 
Arizona about 4 million years ago after the formation of the Isthmus of 
Panama, during the Pliocene Period (Fochetti and Tierno de Figueroa 
2008, p. 374).
    Anacroneuria was confirmed to exist in the United States when 
Redrock stonefly was described from Yavapai County, Arizona (Baumann 
and Olson 1984, pp. 489-492). Anacroneuria nymphs (immature stages) 
were first collected in Oak Creek at Page Springs in 1975, and the 
first adults were collected from Oak Creek at Redrock Crossing in 1978 
(Baumann and Olson 1984, p. 489).
    The Redrock stonefly is a large-winged stonefly. Adult male body 
lengths range between 0.4 to 0.5 inches (in) (10 to 12 millimeters 
(mm)), and female body lengths are 0.6 in (15 mm). Overall coloration 
is the same between genders: yellow head, brown and yellow body with 
bands bordering the midline. Redrock stonefly legs are covered with 
small brown spines on the upper surface, and the abdomen has many small 
spinules on the edges (Baumann and Olson 1984, pp. 489-492). Stewart 
and Harper (1996, pp. 231, 255, 258) provide morphological characters 
to separate Anacroneuria adults and nymphs from other Perlidae genera. 
Anacroneuria adults and nymphs are distinguished from all other 
southwestern Perlidae for having two ocelli (simple eyes) on top of 
their head rather than three. The only other western Perlidae genus 
with two ocelli is Neoperla, but it is not found in Arizona (Stewart 
and Stark 2002, p. 350).
Ecology
    Baumann and Olson (1984, pp. 489-492) is the only published paper 
describing the Redrock stonefly. This paper does not provide any 
specific habitat or ecology information on this species. However, the 
following ecological information is available from published reports on 
other Anacroneuria species. We presume that the information generally 
applies to Redrock stonefly.
    At early ages and small sizes, Anacroneuria nymphs are primarily 
detrivorous, meaning they feed on decayed leaves, algae, and other 
organic matter. Older larger nymphs are predaceous, feeding entirely on 
other aquatic insects including Dipteran (true fly) larvae and 
Ephemeropteran (mayfly) nymphs, and other smaller stonefly nymphs. 
North American Perlidae stonefly nymphs, in addition to foraging in 
riffle (shallow, flowing water) habitats, often forage within leaf 
packs (Femenella and Stewart 1986, pp. 535-536). Neotropical 
Anacroneuria nymphs forage in leaf litter as predators (Baptista et al. 
2001, p. 251; Wantzen and Wagner 2006, p. 220); we assume that leaf 
litter provides an important foraging habitat for Redrock stonefly 
nymphs. Leaf litter availability varies in southwestern U.S. streams 
(Schade and Fisher 1997, p. 612). Leaf litter can accumulate behind 
large rocks, behind logs, along the stream margins where the current is 
slower, and behind other obstructions in high-gradient streams (Hoover 
et al. 2006, pp. 443-444). Intense local thunderstorms generate severe 
flash floods, which may reduce leaf litter availability for that season 
(Schade and Fisher 1997, pp. 612, 624). Predaceous stoneflies, 
including the Redrock stonefly, must then be able to forage in riffle 
areas outside of leaf litter when it is not available in their habitat. 
Adult Anacroneuria do not eat; they apparently rely on the predaceous 
diet of their late nymphal stages for reproductive organ and egg 
development (Fenoglio 2003, pp. 2, 16).
    Neotropical Anacroneuria have a multivoltine life cycle (more than 
one life cycle, from egg to adult, occurs during a year) (Jackson and 
Sweeney 1995, p. 122). Because multivoltine life cycles are unknown in 
stoneflies from temperate climates (United States and Canada) (Brittain 
1990, p. 4), we anticipate that the Redrock stonefly would have a 
univoltine life cycle (only one life cycle from egg to adult per year).
    Stoneflies use egg or nymphal diapause (a period of suspended 
growth or development) during harsh summer conditions to allow them to 
survive seasonally poor water conditions and low stream flows (Snellen 
and Stewart 1979, p. 663; Brittain 1990, p. 8; Favret and DeWalt 2002, 
p. 37). During summer diapause, stonefly eggs or nymphs suspend 
development and remain buried in the moist stream bottom sediment until 
optimal growth conditions return. Stoneflies, including Perlidae, also 
use this summer diapause to survive in intermittent streams (streams 
that only flow as a response to snowmelt or rain storm runoff and have 
insufficient groundwater contribution to provide surface flow during 
the summer) (Snellen and Stewart 1979, p.

[[Page 46253]]

1; Feminella 1996, p. 659; Miller and Golladay 1996, p. 685). The 
Redrock stonefly may be expected to use diapauses during dry periods 
when water conditions and quantity are low.
    Aquatic macroinvertebrates drift, or move downstream in their 
habitats, under different circumstances. Catastrophic drift occurs when 
large flood events carry macroinvertebrates downstream (Brittain and 
Eikland 1988, pp. 82-83). All aquatic macroinvertebrates are likely to 
experience this drift event if they are unable to find suitable 
protection during a flood event. This may also include drift from 
substrate disturbance from other means such as hikers, livestock, or 
vehicles moving across the stream. Aquatic macroinvertebrates may 
behaviorally drift to colonize new habitats to reduce competition for 
food and space (Brittain and Eikland 1988, p. 84). Predator-induced 
drift may occur when they are disturbed by a foraging predator and 
escape by allowing the water current to carry them away (Malmqvist and 
Sjostrom 1987, p. 402). Intentional drifting, as in behaviorally or 
predator-induced cases, is only practiced by those macroinvertebrates 
that are capable swimmers (such as Baetid and Amelitid mayflies) and 
can control when, where, and how far they drift (Malmqvist and Sjostrom 
1987, p. 402). Drifting insects are very susceptible to fish predation; 
they are out in the open water column where they are easily seen. 
Intentional drift often occurs at night to avoid fish predation 
(Flecker 1992, p. 438). Aquatic macroinvertebrates that are poor 
swimmers, such as predaceous stoneflies, are less likely to purposely 
drift because they would be susceptible to fish predation (Radar and 
McArthur 1995, p. 8). However, in some cases, predaceous stoneflies may 
drift when suitable foraging sites are separated by areas, such as 
sand-bottom streams, with little hiding cover to crawl across. Large 
crawling stoneflies, like the Redrock stonefly, are also susceptible to 
fish predation where there is little cover. In contrast, areas of 
continuous cover, such as cobble-bed streams, provide protection from 
fish predation when stoneflies move from one area to another (Radar and 
McArthur 1995, p. 1). The known Redrock stonefly sites are continuous 
cobble-bedded streams, which reduces the need to drift to new areas.
Distribution
    The Redrock stonefly is known to only occur in Arizona, and it was 
initially described from specimens collected at two sites: Redrock 
Crossing at Red Rock State Park and Page Springs on Oak Creek, Yavapai 
County, Arizona (Baumann and Olson 1984, p. 492; AGFD 2004, p. 1). 
Additional stonefly surveys were conducted to determine the Redrock 
stonefly's current status and distribution (Service 2010a, p. 1). 
During surveys in May and June 2010, adult Redrock stoneflies were 
found at the Page Spring Fish Hatchery on Oak Creek and Wet Beaver 
Creek, and near an Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) 
Bear Flats sampling site on Tonto Creek (Service 2010, p. 1). Surveys 
on West Clear Creek, east of Camp Verde in Yavapai County, did not 
identify any Redrock stoneflies. Identification of adult specimens was 
confirmed by stonefly experts (Kondratieff pers. comm. 2010, p. 1; 
Baumann pers. comm. 2010, p. 1; Stark pers. comm. 2010, p. 1).
    The ADEQ had previously collected Anacroneuria nymphs during water 
quality monitoring on Campbell Blue Creek in Apache County in 2000; 
four sites on Upper Tonto Creek in Gila County from 1995 to 2008; 
Spring Creek in Gila County in 1998; and Wet Beaver Creek (upstream of 
the Service's survey location) in 1995 (Spindler 2010a, p. 1). Species 
identification was not possible because only Anacroneuria nymphs were 
collected. However, because there are no other stonefly species in that 
genus known from Arizona, we presume these nymphs represent collections 
of Redrock stonefly.
    In total, we now believe the Redrock stonefly occupies at least 10 
sites within five different streams in central Arizona. As a result the 
only known change in distribution of the species is the increase from 2 
sites, from which it was initially described, to 10 sites where 
additional surveys found it. The increased range is a result of 
increased survey efforts. We suspect that if additional survey efforts 
were employed for this species, its known range and number of 
occurrences would likely expand as well. This is because the adult 
flying form of the Redrock stonefly has the ability to easily disperse 
into available habitats, and there are numerous other habitats in this 
region of Arizona that would appear suitable to support Redrock 
stoneflies. The species does not appear to be a habitat specialist, and 
so we would expect to find it in other similar stream habitats if more 
survey efforts were undertaken.
    The current sites where the Redrock stonefly occurs span about 180 
miles (mi) (288 kilometers (km)) east to west across the Central 
Highlands Physiographic Region in Arizona and include the Verde and 
Salt Rivers and Tonto Creek headwaters. Because of the high elevations 
and associated higher rainfall and snowfall, these watersheds contain 
the highest concentration of perennial streams (water present 
throughout the year) in Arizona (Arizona Department of Water Resources 
(ADWR) 2009a, p. 4). The Redrock stonefly may also occupy other un-
surveyed water bodies (for example, East Verde River, Dude and Canyon 
Creeks, and numerous sites on the White Mountain Apache Indian 
Reservation) located in this physiographic region. The Redrock stonefly 
sites or their watersheds are found on the Coconino, Tonto, and Apache-
Sitgreaves National Forests. Descriptions of occupied areas on each 
National Forest are provided below.
    To date, the Redrock stonefly has been found only in perennial 
streams. All sites are in moderate gradient (approximately 2 percent 
slope), cobble-bedded streams, with overhanging streambank vegetation 
including willow (Salix sp.), velvet ash (Fraxinus velutina), Arizona 
alder (Alnus oblongifolia), and blackberry (Rubus sp.) (Service 2010a, 
p. 1).
    There is substantial variation in the stream size, elevation, and 
water temperature in areas occupied by the Redrock stonefly, making 
this species more of a generalist than most other stonefly species 
(Brittain 1990, p. 2). Stream sizes range from Campbell Blue Creek (47 
square-mi (122 square-km) watershed and 160 cubic-feet-per-second (cfs) 
(4.5 cubic-meters-per-second (cms)) bankfull channel discharge) to Oak 
Creek at Page Springs (355 square-mi (919 square-km) watershed and 
1,400 cfs (39.6 cms) bankfull channel discharge). Bankfull channel 
discharge relates to the relative frequent flow (occurs 2 out of every 
3 years) that fills the river channel to the point of inundating the 
floodplain (Rosgen 1996, p. 2-2). Elevations at Redrock stonefly sites 
range from 3,460 feet (ft) (1,055 meters (m)) on Oak Creek below Page 
Springs to 6,670 ft (2,033 m) on Campbell Blue Creek. Adjacent upland 
vegetation ranges from mixed paloverde and cactus desert (Oak Creek at 
Page Springs) to ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and mixed conifer 
(Campbell Blue Creek). The majority of sites are located between 3,900 
and 5,100 ft (1,190 and 1,555 m) in elevation. Seven of the 10 Redrock 
stonefly sites are considered warm-water streams (streams located below 
5,000 ft (1,524 m) elevation): Oak Creek (two sites), Wet Beaver Creek 
(two sites), Spring Creek, and the two lower Tonto Creek sites 
(Spindler 2010c, p. 1). The remaining three sites (streams above

[[Page 46254]]

5,000 ft (1,524 m)), Campbell Blue Creek and the two higher Tonto Creek 
sites, are considered cold-water streams.

Coconino National Forest

    Oak Creek is a perennial stream in Coconino and Yavapai Counties in 
central Arizona. Average annual precipitation in Oak Creek Canyon is 28 
in (71 cm) (ADWR 2009a, p. 247). Its two main tributaries are the West 
Fork of Oak Creek and Pumphouse Wash on the Coconino National Forest. 
Oak Creek base flow is maintained by springs at Indian Gardens, by Page 
Springs, and from its Spring Creek tributary. Oak Creek, upstream and 
downstream of the Redrock stonefly sites, flows through Coconino 
National Forest, private lands, and State-owned lands. Redrock 
Crossing, the farthest upstream Redrock stonefly site in Redrock State 
Park, is located approximately 4.7 river miles (7.6 km) downstream from 
the city of Sedona. The Page Spring site, at the Page Springs Fish 
Hatchery which is owned and operated by the AGFD, is approximately 18.7 
river miles (30 km) downstream of Sedona.
    Wet Beaver Creek is located east of Interstate Highway 17 and north 
of the city of Camp Verde in Yavapai County, Arizona. It is a tributary 
to Beaver Creek, which eventually flows into the Verde River at Camp 
Verde. The Redrock stonefly was collected at two sites on Wet Beaver 
Creek. The ADEQ collected nymphs upstream of the U.S. Geological Survey 
(USGS) stream gage and adults were also collected at the Beaver Creek 
Ranch (Service 10a, p. 1). Both sites are located on the National 
Forest; the downstream site is adjacent to private land.

Tonto National Forest

    Tonto Creek originates on the edge of the Mogollon Rim at about 
7,600 ft (2,300 m) in elevation in mixed conifer forest, dominated by 
ponderosa pine. Average annual precipitation for the Upper Tonto Creek 
watershed ranges from 22 to 30 in (56 to 76 cm) (ADWR 2009a, p. 173). 
There are 10 different springs that produce more than 10 gallons per 
minute (gpm) (38 liters per minute (lpm)) that contribute to Tonto 
Creek (ADWR 2009a, p. 182). Tonto Spring at the headwaters of Tonto 
Creek is the largest spring in the Tonto Creek Basin with a measured 
discharge of 1,291 gpm (4,887 lpm) (ADWR 2009a, p. 180).
    The ADEQ collected Redrock stonefly nymphs at four sites on Tonto 
Creek: above Bear Flats; below the Christopher Creek confluence; below 
the Haigler Creek confluence; and below Bear Flats, south of Kohls 
Ranch (Spindler 2010a, p. 1). Two adult female Redrock stoneflies were 
also collected at the Bear Flats Campground in June 2010. All Redrock 
stonefly sites on Tonto Creek are on the Tonto National Forest. This 
portion of Tonto Creek is predominantly U.S. Forest Service land, with 
the exception of a private development at Bear Flats and Kohl's Ranch. 
The Redrock stonefly sites downstream of Bear Flats and downstream of 
the Haigler Creek confluence are located within the Hells Gate 
Wilderness and managed by the U.S. Forest Service.
    Spring Creek is located on the Tonto National Forest near the town 
of Young, Gila County, Arizona. The Redrock stonefly site on Spring 
Creek is downstream of the Brady Canyon confluence and has an 88 
square-mi (228 square-km) watershed. Spring Creek eventually flows 11 
mi (17.6 km) from this site into Tonto Creek. Annual precipitation 
averages 24 in (61 cm) (ADWR 2009b, p. 173). Spring Creek is an 
interrupted flow system with perennial water disappearing in wider 
alluvial valleys (gently sloping areas with deep sediment deposits) 
then resurfacing in narrow canyons. It is mapped as an intermittent 
stream below its confluence with Walnut Creek (ADWR 2009a, p. 182, 
Figure 5.3-6). There are no springs along Spring Creek or located 
within its watershed that produce stream flows greater than 1 gpm (3.8 
lpm) (ADWR 2009b, p. 182). ADWR (2009, p. 187) does not record any 
wells located within the Spring Creek watershed.

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests

    Campbell Blue Creek originates southwest of Alpine, Apache County, 
in eastern Arizona, and flows southeasterly for 17 river miles (27 km) 
to its confluence with Dry Blue Creek in New Mexico. Perennial flow 
initiates downstream of the Coleman Creek/Campbell Blue Creek 
confluence. Campbell Blue Creek has one spring that produces at least 
10 gpm (38 L pm), located downstream of the Redrock stonefly site (ADWR 
2009b, pp. 351-352). All of the tributaries that drain into Campbell 
Blue Creek are intermittent (ADWR 2009b, p. 352). The area receives an 
average of 21 inches (53 cm) of precipitation per year (ADWR 2009b, p. 
342).

Summary of Factors Affecting the Redrock Stonefly

    Section 4 of the Act and its implementing regulations (50 CFR 424) 
set forth procedures for adding species to, removing species from, or 
reclassifying species on the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened 
Wildlife and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, a species may be 
determined to be endangered (in danger of extinction throughout all or 
a significant portion of its range) or threatened (likely to become an 
endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a 
significant portion of it range) based on any of the following five 
factors:
    (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or 
curtailment of its habitat or range;
    (B) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes;
    (C) Disease or predation;
    (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or
    (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued 
existence.
    In making this finding, information pertaining to the Redrock 
stonefly in relation to the five factors provided in section 4(a)(1) of 
the Act is discussed below. In making our 12-month finding, we 
considered and evaluated the best available scientific and commercial 
information.
    In considering what factors might constitute threats, we must look 
beyond the mere exposure of the species to the factor to determine 
whether the species responds to the factor in a way that causes actual 
impacts to the species. If there is exposure to a factor, but no 
response, or only a positive response, that factor is not a threat. If 
there is exposure and the species responds negatively, the factor may 
be a threat and we then attempt to determine how significant a threat 
it is. If the threat is significant, it may drive or contribute to the 
risk of extinction of the species such that the species warrants 
listing as endangered or threatened as those terms are defined by the 
Act. This does not necessarily require empirical proof of a threat. The 
combination of exposure and some corroborating evidence of how the 
species is likely impacted could suffice. The mere identification of 
factors that could impact a species negatively is not sufficient to 
compel a finding that listing is appropriate; we require evidence that 
these factors are operative threats that act on the species to the 
point that the species meets the definition of endangered or threatened 
under the Act.

A. The Present or Threatened, Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment 
of the Species' Habitat or Range

    Under Factor A, we will discuss a variety of potential impacts to 
Redrock stonefly habitat including: (1) Water

[[Page 46255]]

quality, (2) livestock grazing, (3) crayfish, (4) wildfires, (5) 
prescribed fires, (6) recreation, and (7) urban and rural development. 
The potential impacts of nonnative crayfish are discussed here related 
to habitat alterations, and other impacts from crayfish are discussed 
under Factor C below.
Water Quality
    Impacts to aquatic habitats, especially from pollution, have been 
identified as a concern for the Redrock stonefly (AGFD 2004, p. 2). 
Most stonefly species are restricted to cold-water environments because 
their small external gills require water with high dissolved oxygen 
levels (Surdick and Gaufin 1978, p. 3; Covich 1988, p. 365; Brittain 
1990, p. 2). In unpolluted, cold-water streams and rivers, dissolved 
oxygen concentrations usually remain high, well above 80 percent 
saturation, because oxygen solubility (ability to be absorbed in water) 
increases as temperature decreases (Hauer and Hill 1996, p. 96). High 
organic nutrient levels can also be detrimental because they cause 
excessive microbial (microscopic organisms) growth. These organisms 
consume oxygen from the water (Hauer and Hill 1996, pp. 96-97). Organic 
pollution can also cause excessive algae growth, which can decrease 
dissolved oxygen when the algae respires or absorbs oxygen at night 
(Hauer and Hill 1996, p. 97) or when the vegetation dies and decomposes 
(Jewell 1971, p. 1457). Because Plecoptera are considered sensitive to 
low dissolved oxygen levels in water, their presence is often used for 
monitoring water quality (Surdick and Gaufin 1978, p. 1; Udo et al. 
1984, p. 189). However, stoneflies in the genus Anacroneuria are an 
exception to this standard practice, because species in this genus are 
well-established in warm-water neotropic regions of Central and South 
America and can withstand lower dissolved oxygen levels (Stark and 
Kondratieff 2004, p. 1; Fenoglio 2007, p. 220; Nelson 2008, p. 184; 
Springer 2008, p. 274). Anacroneuria are often found in streams with 
warm-water temperatures ranging from 75 to 78 degrees Fahrenheit (24 to 
26 degrees Celsius) (Froehlich and Oliveira 1997, p. 1882; Fenoglio and 
Rosciszewska 2003, p. 163), which limits available dissolved oxygen. 
Anacroneuria are adapted to low dissolved oxygen levels by having egg 
capsules with tiny, thin canals oriented perpendicularly to the surface 
of the shell that enhance oxygen uptake compared to other stoneflies 
(Fenoglio and Rosciszewska 2003, p. 163). As a result of these 
adaptations, the Redrock stonefly may be tolerant of impaired water 
quality, particularly elevated water temperature and excessive 
nutrients that can lead to low dissolved oxygen.
    Several researchers have reported that Anacroneuria are tolerant of 
poor water quality conditions. In fact, due to its tolerance for low 
dissolved oxygen and poor water quality, Tomanova and Tedesco (2007, p. 
69) determined that Anacroneuria may not be a good indicator of water 
quality. Baptista et al. (2007, p. 92) noted that in tropical streams, 
Anacroneuria was an exception to the rule that Plecoptera are 
considered sensitive to environmental degradation. In addition, 
Anacroneuria were documented in numerous bioassessment reviews and 
studies in South America in waters with high organic (nutrients) 
levels, although less so than in unpolluted waters (Froelich and 
Oliveria 1997, p. 183; Bispo et al. 2002, p. 413; Bispo and Oliveria 
2007, p. 287). Bobot and Hamada (2002, p. 300) found that Anacroneuria 
densities did not respond to suspended sediment caused by deforestation 
in streams in central Brazil. In another study, Anacroneuria were the 
only stoneflies found in streams under strong anthropogenic (human-
caused) influences (Bispo et al. 2002, p. 413). We presume that the 
Redrock stonefly is similar to other species of stoneflies in the 
Anacroneuria genus and would, therefore, be tolerant of poor quality 
conditions, should these types of conditions be present in their 
habitat.
    The ADEQ is required by the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et 
seq.) to conduct a comprehensive analysis of water quality data 
associated with Arizona's surface waters to determine whether State 
water quality standards are being met and designated uses (such as 
human contact, aquatic, and wildlife) are being supported. Since 1992, 
the ADEQ has evaluated water quality at eight sites currently known to 
be occupied by Redrock stonefly nymphs (Spindler 2010b, p. 1). The ADEQ 
rated five of the eight sites, Oak Creek (two sites) and Tonto Creek 
(three sites), as having impaired water quality as a result of 
Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria level exceedance in 2006 and 2008 
(Avila et al. 2009, pp. VR-33, VR-35, SR-64, SR-65). The ADEQ notes 
that high E.coli levels, on their own, do not affect aquatic 
invertebrates (Spindler 2010b, p. 1), and we do not expect them to 
affect Redrock stoneflies. This parameter is measured for safety 
thresholds for the human contact designated use (Marsh 2009, p. G-22). 
The ADEQ found no other water quality concerns during these surveys. 
Our review found no other information indicating water quality concerns 
in the streams where Redrock stoneflies are known to occur.
    Based on the results of ADEQ water quality analyses and the Redrock 
stonefly's wide range of habitats and presumed tolerance to higher 
levels of sedimentation and nutrient enrichment, we conclude that water 
quality conditions in Arizona are not a significant threat to the 
Redrock stonefly or its habitat.
Livestock Grazing
    If livestock grazing is not well-managed, aquatic insects can be 
negatively impacted by decreased riparian vegetation, stream bank 
destabilization, and increases in sedimentation and water temperature 
(Braccia and Voshell 2006, p. 269; McIver and McInnis 2007, p. 294). 
Improper grazing use levels may lead to soil erosion from riparian and 
upland vegetation removal, soil litter removal, increased soil 
compaction from trampling, and increased bare ground (Kauffman and 
Krueger 1984, p. 434; Schulz and Leininger 1990, pp. 297-298; Belsky et 
al. 1999, p. 30). Excessive livestock grazing in upland watersheds can 
also lead to bare, compacted soils, which in turn allow less water 
infiltration, which generates increased rates of surface runoff and can 
contribute to soil erosion as well as flooding and stream bank 
alterations (Abdel-Magid et al. 1987, pp. 304-305; Orodho et al. 1990, 
pp. 9-11). Increased soil erosion leads to higher sediment loads in 
nearby waters, which can degrade instream and riparian habitat and 
increase water turbidity. Perlidae stoneflies, like Redrock stoneflies, 
may experience reduced respiratory ability when their gills are covered 
by sediment (Lemly 1982, pp. 238-239). Sediment that becomes embedded 
in the interstitial spaces around large substrate can smother insect 
(such as stonefly) eggs and larvae, reduce forage for the nymphal 
stage, and limit suitable egg depositing sites (Brusven and Prather 
1974, p. 31; Waters 1995, pp. 65-66).
    The ADEQ (Spindler 2010c, p. 1) classified the Redrock stonefly 
sites as moderate gradient based on riffle-dominated cobble or gravel 
or both substrate streams (Rosgen Stream Classification B3 channel 
types) (Rosgen 1994, p. 174; Rosgen 1996, pp. 5-68, 5-72). The B3 
stream types are moderately entrenched systems with channel gradients 
of 2 to 4 percent. The channel bottom materials are composed primarily 
of cobble (2.5 to 10 in (64 to 256 mm) intermediate axis diameter) with 
a few boulders and lesser amounts

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of sands and gravels. Rosgen (1994, p. 194) determined that B3 stream 
types have low sensitivity to disturbance and low streambank erosion 
potential. The large cobble substrate that is resistant to movement 
during frequent flood events is also resilient to livestock 
disturbance. Given the energy required to initiate movement of large 
cobbles, these stream channel types do not rely on vegetation for 
stability; the substrate size in itself provides stabilization.
    Recent ADEQ water quality data do not show that livestock are 
having a negative impact on water condition at any of the Redrock 
stonefly sites, in the form of excess sediment or nutrients that are 
contributing to impairment (Avila et al. 2009, pp. SR-64, SR-65, VR-33, 
VR-35, VR-61, VR-62). The ADEQ sites that are impaired and the causes 
of impairment are discussed above in the Water Quality section.
    One reason that grazing is not affecting streams that provide 
habitat for the Redrock stonefly is that many of the streams are in 
areas with well-managed grazing or no grazing. In Coconino National 
Forest, the Oak Creek sites are not on livestock grazing allotments. 
Almost the entire Oak Creek corridor is excluded from livestock 
grazing. The Wet Beaver Creek stonefly sites are also excluded from 
livestock grazing. In the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest, Campbell 
Blue Creek is also excluded from livestock grazing within the 
downstream segment where Redrock stoneflies were collected by ADEQ 
(USDA 2009, p. 87).
    In the Tonto National Forest, the five Upper Tonto Creek sites are 
located on two livestock grazing allotments: Christopher Mountain/
Ellinwood and Diamond Butte. The Redrock stonefly sites in the 
Christopher and Tonto Creeks are excluded from grazing due to their 
topography (they are in very steep terrain), or they are located in 
pastures that are not grazed. The Spring Creek site is not located on a 
grazing allotment, but is used for the Heber-Reno Sheep Driveway on the 
Tonto and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Two permitted livestock 
operators are authorized to use the driveway as part of their 10-year 
grazing permits. The permitted sheep herding is currently managed 
through Annual Operating Instructions that are prepared for the Long 
Tom and Beehive/Sheep Springs allotments in coordination with the 
livestock operators and six ranger districts on the two forests. The 
Sheep Driveway is used to access summer grazing allotments on the 
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest from winter grazing lands located on 
private property in Phoenix, Arizona. Approximately 8,000 permitted 
sheep, plus 7 pack animals per band for the sheep herders and camp 
tender, are authorized on the Sheep Driveway (USDA 2010a, pp. 1-2). 
Sheep are kept out of all riparian areas except when crossing and 
watering (USDA 2010a, p. 11). All riparian areas are excluded from use 
as bedding grounds. The limited sheep grazing at established stream 
channel crossings does not likely affect the Redrock stonefly. These 
stream crossing sites have little to no riparian vegetation and no 
potential to produce riparian vegetation because they are dry washes or 
road surfaces, or they consist of large cobble and boulder substrate 
(USDA 2010a, p. 3).
    Livestock grazing is not threatening the habitat of the Redrock 
stonefly, because the habitat has limited exposure to the effects of 
grazing. Livestock are excluded from the Oak, Wet Beaver, and Campbell 
Blue Creeks Redrock stonefly sites due to decisions of land managers or 
property owners. The Tonto Creek Redrock stonefly sites are located in 
areas difficult for livestock to access. Only one area is used as a 
travel corridor for moving sheep (Spring Creek), and the stream 
crossing sites are not likely to affect Redrock stoneflies. Therefore, 
we find that grazing is not a significant threat to the Redrock 
stonefly or its habitat.
Crayfish
    Crayfish are not native to Arizona. The red swamp crayfish 
(Procambarus clarkii) and the green or northern crayfish (Orconectes 
virilis) were introduced in Arizona in the 1970s (Taylor et al. 1996, 
p. 27; Inman et al. 1998, p. 3). The red swamp crayfish is not 
currently found in any of the Redrock stonefly sites (Sorensen 2010, p. 
1; USGS 2010a, p. 1). The northern crayfish, however, is found 
throughout Arizona, including the following Redrock stonefly sites: 
Tonto Creek drainage; Oak Creek drainage (Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 
23, 40-44, 59); Verde River drainage (Inman et al. 1998, Appendix B; 
Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 14, 20-28, 54-56); Salt River drainage 
(Inman et al. 1998, Appendix B; Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 15, 29-44, 
56-60); and Spring Creek drainage and Campbell Blue Creek drainage 
(Holycross et al. 2006, pp. 25, 46, 55, 60).
    Crayfish are known to affect aquatic macroinvertebrate habitat in 
three ways: (1) By increasing leaf litter decomposition rates; (2) by 
feeding on aquatic plants; and (3) by increasing turbidity and 
sedimentation from bioturbation when crayfish are physically moving 
through fine substrates. The following discussion addresses each of 
these three mechanisms. Crayfish can also prey on macroinvertebrates, 
and this is discussed under Factor C.
    First, crayfish may reduce the amount of leaf litter in streams and 
reduce the amount of forage and foraging habitat available to Redrock 
stonefly nymphs. The nymphs feed on detritus when young; they then prey 
upon other aquatic macroinvertebrates found in the leaf litter 
(Fenoglio 2003, pp. 2, 16). Forested streams receive a large portion of 
their energy input from allochthonous litter (mainly plant material 
from terrestrial sources) (Minshall 1967, p. 147; Vannote et al. 1980, 
p. 132; Wallace et al. 1997, p. 102). This litter, in the form of 
leaves and wood, is an important food source and foraging area for 
stream invertebrates (Wallace and Webster 1996, p. 120; Usio 2000, p. 
608). Invertebrates that feed on leaf litter are called shredders and 
consume course particulate organic matter in the stream channel. 
Shredders convert coarse particulate organic matter into fine 
particulate organic matter, which breaks down litter and provides 
additional food sources for stream macroinvertebrates. In their native 
range, crayfish serve an important function by shredding coarse 
particulate organic matter into fine matter in litter-based food webs 
(Usio 2000, p. 612; Creed and Reed 2004, p. 225).
    However, nonnative crayfish feeding on leaf litter can 
significantly reduce the time it would otherwise take to break down 
leaf litter and may lower the amount of foraging area available to 
native macroinvertebrates (Usio 2000, p. 612; Creed and Reed 2004, p. 
231; Bobeldyk and Lamberti 2010, pp. 648, 652). Nonnative crayfish are 
typically the largest invertebrate shredder in streams (Usio 2000, p. 
609; Parkyn et al. 2001, p. 641). Studies show that reduced terrestrial 
litter amounts in streams resulted in decreased abundance of 
invertebrates (and their predators) that feed on large and fine 
particulate organic matter (Wallace et al. 1997, p. 102; Bobeldyk and 
Lamberti 2010, pp. 649, 652). Neotropical Anacroneuria nymphs feed on 
the small invertebrates that occur in association with leaf litter and 
leaf packs (accumulated piles of leaf litter) (Benstead 1996, p. 371; 
Mathuriau and Chauvet 2002, p. 390; Wantzen and Wagner 2006, p. 220). 
Redrock stonefly nymphs are expected to use leaf packs as foraging 
habitat when leaf packs are available and have not been removed from 
the site by flooding (Schade and Fisher 1997, p. 624). Redrock stonefly

[[Page 46257]]

nymphs could have less available food and foraging habitat as a result 
of nonnative crayfish feeding on the leaf litter and increasing the 
rate of leaf breakdown. However, because leaf litter availability is 
also affected by flood events, the Redrock stonefly would be expected 
to be adaptable and to satisfy its foraging needs in other habitats 
such as riffle areas. Therefore, the potential loss of some leaf litter 
due to crayfish is not expected to impact Redrock stoneflies.
    Second, crayfish may reduce the amount of living aquatic vegetation 
in streams. Crayfish feed heavily on living aquatic plants (Chambers et 
al. 1990, p. 90; Creed 1994, p. 2098; Nystrom and Strand 1996, pp. 678, 
680). The northern crayfish feeds on and reduces aquatic vegetation 
available in streams, removing food sources for herbaceous 
invertebrates, which reduces macroinvertebrate habitat, and may cause a 
decrease in available prey items as food for the Redrock stonefly. In 
one example, Creed (1994, p. 2098) found that a filamentous alga 
(Cladophora glomerata), an aquatic plant commonly fed upon by crayfish, 
was at least 10-fold greater in aquatic habitats without crayfish in 
Michigan streams. Filamentous alga is an important component of aquatic 
vegetation that provides cover and food for macroinvertebrates that 
predatory stoneflies may feed on.
    However, we believe that crayfish feeding on aquatic plants is not 
likely to impact the Redrock stonefly. This is because Redrock stonefly 
nymphs occur in moderately steep-gradient streams with cobble 
substrates that do not provide many areas with fine substrates or low 
water velocities for herbaceous vegetation to establish and persist. 
The three factors that limit aquatic vegetation growth in stream 
channels are shade, large cobble substrate, and high water velocity, 
and they are all present at all Redrock stonefly sites (Vannote et al. 
1990, p. 132; Biggs 1996, p. 135; Riis and Biggs 2003, pp. 1495-1496; 
O'Hare et al. 2010, pp. 6-7; Service 2010a, p. 1). We presume that 
Redrock stoneflies, like most Anacroneuria, feed in leaf litter and 
gravel and cobble substrates rather than in aquatic vegetation 
(Tamaris-Turizo 2007, p. 1). Therefore, crayfish herbivory does not 
significantly impact stonefly foraging habitat or prey availability.
    Third, crayfish can increase turbidity (suspended sediment in the 
water column) in wetlands and lakes as they move and forage for prey in 
fine sediments (Statzner et al. 2000, p. 1039; Dorn and Wojdak 2004, p. 
157). Many aquatic invertebrates depend upon open interstitial spaces 
(small openings between rocks) in channel substrate (gravels and 
cobbles). Excessive sediments in streams can fill the interstitial 
spaces and reduce aquatic invertebrate habitat (Waters 1995, pp. 65-
68). Crayfish bioturbation (the mobilizing of sediments by crayfish 
activity) can impact lakes, ponds, and wetlands, but it is not likely 
to significantly affect high-gradient streams, such as the sites where 
Redrock stoneflies are present, because the small amounts of suspended 
sediment would be carried by stream flow through the water column until 
they are deposited downstream at lower gradient and lower velocity 
sites.
    In some situations, crayfish bioturbation may actually improve 
macroinvertebrate habitat in the stream environment by removing fine 
sediments from interstitial spaces. For example, Statzner et al. (2000, 
p. 1039) observed that crayfish bioturbation removed fine sediments and 
benefited gravel-spawning salmonids. Also, Creed and Reed (2004, p. 
234) found that mayfly (Ephemeroptera) numbers increased when crayfish 
bioturbation removed fine sediments from gravel streambeds in Maryland. 
This may be particularly important for the recovery of stream bottom 
habitats after silt deposition following floods or other upstream 
disturbances (Parkyn et al. 1997, p. 689). The Redrock stonefly sites 
are stable stream channels that are moderately steep and dominated by 
cobbles. These sites usually have little soft or fine sediments to be 
disturbed and enter the water column. Therefore, crayfish bioturbation 
is not likely to impact Redrock stoneflies.
    In summary, we considered three mechanisms by which nonnative 
crayfish could alter the habitat of the Redrock stonefly: (1) 
Increasing leaf litter decomposition rates; (2) feeding on aquatic 
plants; and (3) increasing turbidity and sedimentation from 
bioturbation when crayfish are physically moving through fine 
substrates. Our analysis of the biology of the stonefly and known 
ecology of the crayfish finds that crayfish are not likely a 
significant threat to the Redrock stonefly or its habitat.
Wildfires
    Wildfires, through alterations of the terrestrial environment, can 
cause many physical disturbances to streams (Gresswell 1999, p. 194). 
Low-intensity fire, which is cooler burning and does not result in 
major changes in the vegetation community in which it occurs, has been 
a natural disturbance factor in forested landscapes for centuries, and 
low-intensity fires were common in Southwestern forests and grasslands 
prior to European settlement (Harrington and Sackett 1990, p. 122). 
Fire suppression and wildfire control during the past decades have 
changed this natural fire regime, resulting in unnatural fuel build-up 
by increased understory vegetation and stand density of large trees, 
which increases fire severity (Harrington and Sackett 1990, p. 122; 
Schoennagel et al. 2004, p. 661; Westerling et al. 2006, p. 940). This 
increased wildfire severity can result in large increases in the 
magnitude and frequency of floods resulting from vegetation removal by 
fire that did not likely occur prior to wildfire suppression and 
control efforts (Neary et al. 2003, p. 30). Moody and Martin (2001, p. 
2990) and Viera et al. (2004, p. 1254) each noted increased soil 
erodibility and reduced infiltration after severe fires, which resulted 
in dramatic increases in peak flow and sediment load in streams 
draining burned catchments. In Southwestern montane watersheds, flood 
events may occur during the July-August monsoon period immediately 
following the May-June fire season (Rinne 1996, p. 653).
    Wildfires have occurred in the past within watersheds that contain 
the Redrock stonefly sites (for example, the Picture Fire above Spring 
Creek, the Brady Fire above Wet Beaver Creek, and the Brins Fire and 
Division Fire above Oak Creek). The Brady Fire burned approximately 
4,000 acres (ac) (1,620 hectares (ha)) in the upper Wet Beaver Creek 
watershed in 2009 (U.S. Forest Service 2010b, p. 1). Two USGS stream 
gages are near the Oak Creek and Wet Beaver Creek Redrock stonefly 
sites. Wet Beaver Creek stream flow data do not show that there has 
been a significantly higher peak flow event after the fire. The nearest 
Oak Creek stream gage, immediately upstream of Page Springs, began 
functioning in October 1981. The Division Fire burned approximately 650 
ac (260 ha) on the slopes above Oak Creek at Page Springs in August 
1980, and the Brins Fire burned 4,317 ac (1,744 ha) north of Sedona in 
June 2006 (U.S. Forest Service 2010b, p. 1). The USGS stream flow data 
do not show any significantly higher peak flows after the two fires 
(USGS 2010).
    The direct effects of fire on stream macroinvertebrate communities 
generally are minor or indiscernible (Rinne 1996, p. 655; Minshall et 
al. 1997, p. 2519; Minshall 2003, p. 155). However, important 
exceptions may include intense heating in areas of small water volume 
(for example, small first-

[[Page 46258]]

or second-order streams or shallow, sluggish margins of larger streams) 
and extended exposure to toxins from dense smoke and errant retardant 
drops (Minshall 2003, p. 156). Redrock stoneflies may only experience 
limited exposure to these effects in the swifter flowing water they 
inhabit. Toxins and heated water may be transported through their 
habitat before cumulative adverse effects result.
    Instead, adverse effects of wildfire on stream macroinvertebrates 
are largely the result of physical changes in habitat due to increased 
runoff after the fire (Minshall et al. 1989, p. 712). This higher 
runoff can scour, transport, and redistribute sediments and organic 
matter, and it can restructure the physical stream environment (Herbst 
and Cooper 2010, p. 1355). Aquatic macroinvertebrates are somewhat 
resilient to flood events. High numbers may be removed after floods, 
but their numbers quickly recover (Molles 1985, p. 281; Hering et al. 
2004, p. 454). However, aquatic macroinvertebrates showed low 
resistance and resilience to the effects of repeated, large, post-fire 
flood events (Viera et al. 2004, p. 1253). Macroinvertebrate taxa 
richness and densities in general were reduced after the first large 
post-fire flood events, then recovered until the next large flood event 
(Viera et al. 2004, pp. 1247-1248). In one example, a 3-year study from 
central Arizona, Rinne (1996, p. 655) found large flood events reduced 
macroinvertebrate densities by 85 to 90 percent after the Dude Fire.
    Primary consumers, organisms that feed on plants, such as blackfly 
and midge larvae (Diptera), and Baetid mayflies, quickly recolonized 
and dominated the community after wildfire (Minshall et al. 1997, p. 
2523; Viera et al. 2004, p. 1255). Many of these primary consumers are 
filter feeders, which are able to take advantage of increased organic 
matter entering the stream after a fire (Minshall et al. 1989, p. 713; 
Herbst and Cooper 2010, p. 1363). They also disperse easily from 
upstream areas through drift (Minshall et al. 1997, p. 2523) or from 
adult dispersal from adjacent undisturbed habitats (Hughes et al. 2003, 
p. 2151). Because of the increased availability of prey species 
(primary consumers), large stonefly nymphs and other predatory 
macroinvertebrates can dramatically increase in abundance after a fire 
(Viera et al. 2004, pp. 1253-1254; Herbst and Cooper 2010, p. 1360; 
Malison and Baxter 2010, p. 1335). For example, Viera et al. (2004, p. 
1251) found the predaceous stonefly, Isoperla (Perlodidae), had 
recovered in the first post-fire year that did not experience a 
significant flood event. We would, therefore, anticipate that under 
most circumstances, if fires resulted in a decrease in the availability 
of primary consumer prey species for food of Redrock stoneflies, such 
an effect would be short-term in nature.
    Because of the limited exposure of the species to the effects of 
wildfires and the expected resiliency of the species to recover 
following any short-term habitat alteration resulting from wildfires, 
we find the wildfires are not a significant threat to the Redrock 
stonefly or its habitat.
Prescribed Fires
    To avoid the detrimental effects of large, high-severity fires and 
to restore more natural fire disturbance patterns in forest ecosystems 
of the western United States, prescribed fires and mechanical forest 
thinnings (selected removal of trees) are being used as management 
tools, particularly near wildland-urban interfaces (Arkle and Pilliod 
2010, p. 893). Prescribed fires are often intentionally excluded from, 
or near, riparian forests to avoid fire-associated increases in 
sediment levels and other habitat changes that could be detrimental to 
ecologically sensitive habitats and aquatic taxa (Arkle and Pillirod 
2010, pp. 893-894). Therefore, prescribed fires in Arizona are usually 
designed to avoid impacting riparian and stream habitats. For example, 
the U.S. Forest Service has formally consulted with the Service under 
section 7 of the Act on two prescribed fires that they determined would 
have an adverse effect on two listed species, Gila topminnow 
(Poeciliopsis occidentalis) and loach minnow (Tiaroga cobitis), in a 
riparian or stream community in Arizona: the Quien Sabe Fire Management 
Treatment (Service 1991, pp. 8-9) and the Robinson Mesa Prescribed Fire 
Project (Service 1999, pp. 22-23). Both consultations included 
mandatory terms and conditions to reduce the adverse effects of project 
implementation to listed species. We anticipate that the exclusion of 
prescribed fire from riparian areas, along with conservation measures 
put in place during prescribed fire planning for other species, is 
adequate to minimize impacts to the Redrock stonefly. The Redrock 
stonefly's resilience to wildfire, discussed above, would also reduce 
the effects of prescribed fire. Therefore, we find that prescribed 
fires are not a significant threat to the Redrock stonefly or its 
habitat.
Recreation
    The Redrock stonefly sites or their watersheds occur on private, 
State, and Federal lands. The Federal lands are managed for recreation 
and other purposes, and some level of recreation occurs on every stream 
occupied by the Redrock stonefly. A study of outdoor recreation trends 
in the United States found increases in participation in most of the 
activities surveyed, which included bicycling, primitive or developed-
area camping, bird watching, hiking, backpacking, and snowmobiling 
(Cordell et al. 1999, pp. 221-321). Human population growth trends are 
expected to continue into the future throughout the Southwest, leading 
to higher demand for outdoor recreational opportunities. In the arid 
Southwest, the human desire to recreate in or near water, and the 
relative scarcity of such recreational opportunities, tends to focus 
recreation impacts on riparian areas (Winter 1993, p. 155; Briggs 1996, 
p. 36).
    Streams are popular hiking destinations in Arizona. While there are 
hiking opportunities at each of the Redrock stonefly sites, actual use 
is limited by their location in remote rugged canyons with poor access 
or due to land ownership restrictions (State and private lands). Spring 
Creek and the three lower Tonto Creek sites are located in areas 
without easy road access. The upper Tonto Creek site is difficult to 
access because of private land downstream of its location. The Campbell 
Blue Creek site is located along a forest road, leading to a private 
ranch in a remote area in eastern Arizona. The Redrock stonefly is not 
affected by hiking in Oak Creek. The Page Springs Oak Creek site, at 
the Page Springs Hatchery, has hiking trails on the adjacent uplands. 
The AGFD allows very limited creek access from their property, due to 
concerns of fish disease transmission from the creek to the hatchery. 
Redrock State Park only allows visitor access along designated trails; 
swimming or wading is prohibited in Oak Creek. The Beaver Creek Ranch 
is a private high school that limits public access to the east side of 
the creek. Recreational use is primarily hiking through the area along 
the west side of the creek.
    Hiking in streams can be a source of disturbance to stream 
invertebrates. Aquatic invertebrates can be induced to drift as a 
result of disturbance by hikers within the stream. In one study, 
increased numbers of hikers resulted in increased densities of drifting 
aquatic invertebrates (Caires et al. 2010, p. 555). However, this is 
not likely to be a significant effect, because aquatic invertebrates 
are adapted to flash floods, which cause a similar, but larger, 
disturbance (Caires et al. 2010, p. 555).

[[Page 46259]]

Caires et al. (2010, p. 555) found that aquatic invertebrates areas 
disturbed by hikers quickly recolonized from upstream. Redrock 
stoneflies do not intentionally drift, but if hiking causes then to 
enter the water column, they would be susceptible to fish predation 
until they settled back down to the stream bed. Future flood events 
could carry Redrock stoneflies downstream to unoccupied habitats. 
Because of the limited opportunity for hikers in streams occupied by 
the Redrock stonefly and the likely, but short-term, effects of hiking, 
this type of recreational activity is not a significant threat to the 
Redrock stonefly or its habitat.
    Off-road vehicle (ORV) use is another form of recreation that can 
increase sedimentation in streams by damaging riparian vegetation and 
stream banks. However, most Redrock stonefly sites are either 
inaccessible or minimally impacted by ORV use. The Oak Creek sites are 
not accessible to ORV use. The Page Springs site, at the Page Springs 
Fish Hatchery, limits visitors to walking trails on both sides of Oak 
Creek, fish hatchery tours, and fishing. Also, ORV use is prohibited at 
the Redrock Crossing site at Red State Park. The Wet Beaver Creek sites 
are inaccessible to ORVs because the U.S. Forest Service road leading 
to the site upstream of the USGS gage is closed to all vehicular 
traffic. The lower Wet Beaver Creek site, near the Beaver Creek Ranch, 
is protected by private land on the east side and the closed U.S. 
Forest Service road on the west side. Similarly, the three Tonto Creek 
sites are either located in a narrow canyon or have private land at 
Bear Flats that blocks access. The lower site is located in the Hells 
Gate Wilderness, where mechanized and motorized vehicle uses are 
prohibited. The Spring Creek site is located in a steep-walled canyon 
without any road access. The Campbell Blue Creek site is the only 
habitat that may experience some ORV use because there is a road 
paralleling the creek that provides vehicle access into the area. 
Therefore, due to the lack of access to all but one of the known 
occupied sites, we do not consider ORV use a threat to the Redrock 
stonefly or its habitat.
    In summary, we considered the potential impacts to Redrock stonefly 
habitat from recreational activities primarily associated with hiking 
and ORV use. We found there is limited access to Redrock stonefly 
habitats for these activities and very minor effects when they occur. 
Therefore, we find that recreation is not a significant threat to the 
Redrock stonefly or its habitat.
Urban and Rural Development
    The effects of urban and rural development on natural habitats are 
expected to increase as human populations increase. Consumer interest 
in second home and retirement real estate investments has increased 
significantly in recent times within the southwestern United States. 
Medina (1990, p. 351) points out that many real estate investors are 
looking for scenic areas with mild climates to develop properties that 
are within, or adjacent to, riparian areas, due to their aesthetic 
appeal and available water, especially in the southwestern United 
States. Arizona's population increased by 28 percent from 2000 to 2009 
(U.S. Census Bureau 2010, p. 1). Over the same time period, population 
increases in the Arizona counties where Redrock stoneflies occur are as 
follows: Yavapai County (28 percent); Gila County (1.8 percent); and 
Apache County (1.8 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau 2010, p. 1).
    Increased urbanization and population growth results in increased 
demands for water development projects. Collier et al. (1996, p. 16) 
mentions that water development projects are one of two main causes of 
decline of native fish in the Salt and Gila Rivers of Arizona, and 
municipal water use in central Arizona increased by 39 percent over 8 
years (American Rivers 2006, p. 1). Water for development and 
urbanization is often supplied by groundwater pumping and surface water 
diversions from sources that include reservoirs and the Central Arizona 
Project's allocations from the Colorado River. The hydrologic 
connection between groundwater and surface flow of intermittent and 
perennial streams is becoming better understood as a result of new 
research. Groundwater pumping creates a cone of depression within the 
affected aquifer that slowly extends outward from the well site. When 
the cone of depression intersects the hyporheic zone of a stream (the 
transition zone between surface water and groundwater), the surface 
water flow may decrease, and the subsequent drying of riparian and 
wetland vegetative communities may result (Webb and Leake 2006, p. 
308).
    Streamflow reduction from increased groundwater use and surface 
water diversion can have a dramatic impact on stream habitat and 
associated macroinvertebrate communities. Artificial flow reductions 
frequently lead to negative changes in aquatic ecosystems, such as 
decreased water depth, increased sedimentation, and altered water 
temperatures and chemistry; all of these can reduce or influence 
macroinvertebrate numbers, richness, competition, predation, and other 
interactions (Dewson et al. 2007, pp. 401-411). Twenter and Metzger 
(1963, p. 29) determined that permeable sandstone beds are the primary 
source of water for springs in the Page Springs (also referred to as 
Cave Springs) and Spring Creek areas, and much of the perennial flow in 
Oak Creek is from these springs. Twenter and Metzger (1963, p. 14) 
determined that the average base flow of Oak Creek just above the 
springs complex during winter months was 40 cfs (1.13 cms). After 
adding the 36 cfs (1.01 cms) inflow from springs and 16 cfs (0.45 cms) 
from Spring Creek, the base flow increased to 92 cfs (2.6 cms) near the 
mouth of the creek. There are six springs, not including Page Springs, 
immediately upstream of the Page Springs Redrock stonefly site that 
produces more than 10 gpm (37.8 lpm) (ADWR 2009a, p. 268). Page Springs 
is the second highest discharging spring in the Verde River watershed, 
flowing at 29 cfs (0.82 cms) (Flora 2004, p. 38). These springs and 
seeps in the Page Springs area provide a large volume of water to Oak 
Creek, where the Redrock stonefly occurs (Mitchell 2001, p. 4). An 
analysis of the Page Springs flow rate between January 1, 1996, and 
February 9, 2000, detected a 15 percent decline in flow (Mitchell 2001, 
p. 5). This analysis period coincided with a severe to extreme drought, 
and with the drilling of three new wells upstream of Page Springs 
(Mitchell 2001, p. 6). The ADWR's records show that three wells have 
been drilled in close proximity and up gradient of Cave Springs 
(Mitchell 2001, p. 6). Two of these wells pump between 1,200 gpm (4,542 
lpm) and 1,500 gpm (5,678 lpm), and are within 0.75 mi (1.2 km) of Page 
Springs. Given their proximity, production rate, and hydrological 
connectivity, groundwater withdrawal by these wells could have a direct 
impact on flow at Page Springs (Mitchell 2001, p. 6). However, the 
extent of the impact of these wells on the spring cannot be determined 
without long-term aquifer tests and simultaneous discharge monitoring 
at Cave Springs (Mitchell 2001, p. 6).
    Wet Beaver Creek, upstream of the USGS stream gage, is not affected 
by diversions or wells, because the watershed above this site is on the 
Coconino National Forest. The Beaver Creek Ranch, adjacent to the lower 
Wet Beaver Creek site, has a small pond that is filled by a diversion 
from the creek. This pond is not large enough to impact

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Wet Beaver Creek base flow (Hedwall 2011, p. 1).
    The Upper Tonto Creek headwaters are fed by numerous springs, the 
largest of which is Tonto Springs. Long-term flow records from Tonto 
Springs show little fluctuation in baseflow over a 20-year period 
(Parker et al. 2005, p. 73). There are numerous small wells located on 
private lands and at U.S. Forest Service campgrounds upstream of the 
Redrock stonefly site. The ADWR (2009a, p. 187) does not monitor water 
depth in these wells, nor address the wells' impact to Tonto Creek 
baseflow.
    The Redrock stonefly site on Spring Creek is not affected by 
groundwater wells as ADWR does not identify any wells in the vicinity 
(2009a, p. 197). The Campbell Blue Creek Redrock stonefly site is 
located in an undeveloped watershed with only two small parcels of 
private land upstream of two ADWR-registered wells at the Blue River 
Ranch. There