Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout its Range with Special Rule, 30758-30780 [2011-12928]

Agencies

• Fish and Wildlife Service
• DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

[Federal Register Volume 76, Number 102 (Thursday, May 26, 2011)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 30758-30780]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2011-12928]



[[Page 30757]]

Vol. 76

Thursday,

No. 102

May 26, 2011

Part II





Department of the Interior





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Fish and Wildlife Service



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50 CFR Part 17



Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Salmon-
Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout its Range with Special Rule; 
Final Rule

Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 102 / Thursday, May 26, 2011 / Rules 
and Regulations

[[Page 30758]]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056; MO 92210-1111F105 B6]
RIN 1018-AW00


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the 
Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout its Range with Special 
Rule

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Final rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, determine threatened 
status for the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) under the 
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). This final rule 
implements the Federal protections provided by the Act for this 
species. We are also publishing a special rule for the species.

DATES: This rule becomes effective June 27, 2011.

ADDRESSES: This final rule is available on the Internet at https://www.regulations.gov and comments and materials we received, as well as 
supporting documentation used in the preparation of this rule, will be 
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business 
hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite 
400, Arlington, VA 22203.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of 
Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Service, 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; 
telephone 703-358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you use a 
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal 
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

    The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 
1531 et seq.), is a law that was passed to prevent extinction of 
species by providing measures to help alleviate the loss of species and 
their habitats. Before a plant or animal species can receive the 
protection provided by the Act, it must first be added to one of the 
Federal Lists of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife and Plants; section 
4 of the Act and its implementing regulations at 50 CFR part 424 set 
forth the procedures for adding species to these lists.

Previous Federal Action

    On May 6, 1991, we received a petition (1991 petition) from the 
International Council for Bird Preservation to add 53 foreign birds, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo, to the List of Endangered and 
Threatened Wildlife. In response to the 1991 petition, we published a 
substantial 90-day finding on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 
53 species, initiated a status review to determine if listing each of 
these species was warranted, and sought information from the public and 
interested parties on the status of these species. On March 28, 1994 
(59 FR 14496), we published a 12-month finding on the 1991 petition, 
along with a proposed rule to list 30 African birds under the Act, 
which included 15 species from the 1991 petition. In that document, we 
announced our finding that listing the remaining 38 species from the 
1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, was warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions. We made a subsequent 
warranted-but-precluded finding for all outstanding foreign species 
from the 1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, as 
published in our annual notice of review (ANOR) on May 21, 2004 (69 FR 
29354).
    Per the Service's listing priority guidelines (September 21, 1983; 
48 FR 43098), our 2007 ANOR (72 FR 20183) identified the listing 
priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) for all outstanding 
foreign species. The LPN for the salmon-crested cockatoo was LPN 2. 
With the exception of listing priority ranking of 1, which addresses 
monotypic genera that face imminent threats of high magnitude, category 
2 represents the Service's highest priority.
    On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we published in the Federal 
Register a notice announcing our annual petition findings for foreign 
species. We announced that listing was warranted for 30 foreign bird 
species, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is the subject of 
this proposed rule, and stated that we would ``promptly publish 
proposals to list these 30 taxa.''
    On September 8, 2008, the Service received a 60-day notice of 
intent to sue from the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and Peter 
Galvin regarding alleged violations of section 4 of the Act for the 
failure to promptly publish listing proposals for the 30 ``warranted'' 
species identified in our 2008 ANOR (73 FR 44062). On June 15, 2009, 
the Service entered into a settlement agreement with CBD (CBD, et al. 
v. Salazar, 09-cv-02578-CRB), in which we agreed to submit to the 
Federal Register a proposed listing rule for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo by October 30, 2009.
    On November 3, 2009, we published in the Federal Register (74 FR 
56770) a proposed rule to list the salmon-crested cockatoo as 
threatened under the Act and a special rule for the species under 
section 4(d) of the Act. Following publication, we implemented the 
Service's peer review process and opened a 90-day comment period to 
solicit scientific and commercial information on the species from all 
interested parties.

Summary of Comments and Recommendations

    We base this rule on a review of the best scientific and commercial 
information available, including all information we received during the 
public comment period. In the November 3, 2009, proposed rule, we 
requested that all interested parties submit information that might 
contribute to development of a final rule. We also contacted 
appropriate scientific experts and organizations and invited them to 
comment on the proposed listing. We received 13 comments from members 
of the public.
    We reviewed all comments we received for substantive issues and new 
information regarding the proposed listing of this species, and we 
address those comments below. Overall, the commenters supported the 
proposed listing, although two commenters objected to the special rule. 
Three comments included additional information for consideration; all 
other comments simply supported the proposed listing without providing 
scientific or commercial data.

Peer Review

    In accordance with our policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 
34270), we solicited expert opinions from five individuals with 
scientific expertise that included familiarity with the species, the 
geographic region in which the species occurs, and conservation biology 
principles. We did not receive responses from any of the peer reviewers 
from whom we requested comments.

Public Comments

    Comment (1): Several commenters provided supporting data and 
information regarding the species biology, ecology, life history, 
population estimates, threat factors, and current conservation efforts.

[[Page 30759]]

    Our Response: We thank all the commenters for their interest in the 
conservation of this species and thank those commenters who provided 
information for our consideration in making this listing determination. 
Most information submitted was duplicative of the information contained 
in the proposed rule; however, some comments contained information that 
provided additional clarity or support to, but did not substantially 
change, the information already contained in the proposed rule. This 
information has been incorporated into this rule. Substantial comments 
are addressed below.
    Comment (2): One commenter had serious concerns with the proposed 
special rule and requested it be rewritten or withdrawn. Specific 
objections included:
    Comment (2a): The commenter stated that it is difficult to 
determine the exact origin and status (captive or wild) of salmon-
crested cockatoos. Most birds probably still come from the wild. The 
date of capture is not usually documented, and there appears to be 
little success in breeding this cockatoo in Indonesia. Wild and 
Indonesian captive-bred cockatoos would likely carry contagious 
diseases with them if admitted into the United States as pets. 
Furthermore, the commenter states that without protection against 
import and export of these birds, there is little incentive to cease 
illegal exports from Indonesia, which would foster continued collection 
from the wild.
    Our Response: Most of the salmon-crested cockatoos imported into or 
exported from the United States are personal pets that owners took with 
them when traveling from and returning to the United States. The 
concerns of the commenter are applicable to trade in the domestic and 
international markets of Indonesia and surrounding countries, which are 
not subject to the Act's regulations on import and export of listed 
species, and therefore, not subject to the special rule. The special 
rule allows for import and export of certain cockatoos into and from 
the United States without a permit under the Act. However, all imports 
and exports of salmon-crested cockatoos, including those exempt from a 
permit under the Act as provided in the special rule, are still subject 
to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 
Fauna and Flora (CITES, TIAS 8249) and the Wild Bird Conservation Act 
(WBCA, 16 U.S.C. 4901-4916) and their implementing regulations at 50 
CFR part 23 and 50 CFR part 15, respectively, including permit 
application requirements on the origin of birds in trade (e.g., wild or 
bred in captivity). Under the provisions of WBCA, any individual 
importing their pet bird into the United States for the first time must 
reside outside of the United States for at least 12 continuous months; 
thus, there is little incentive to import foreign specimens. 
Furthermore, to control diseases, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service requires veterinary health 
certificates and health inspections for birds imported into the United 
States that meet certain requirements, and quarantine for other birds, 
as well as research, commercial, and zoological birds imported into the 
United States.
    Comment (2b): This commenter stated that the special rule would not 
have favorable effects to ``enhance the propagation or survival of the 
species,'' nor is it ``necessary and advisable to provide for the 
conservation of the species'' as stated in the proposed rule.
    Our Response: We disagree with the commenter, and after careful 
consideration, we find that the special rule is necessary and advisable 
to provide for the conservation of the species. As the special rule 
indicates, importation of salmon-crested cockatoos, for purposes such 
as enhancement of propagation or survival of specimens, taken from the 
wild after January 18, 1990, would require certain conditions be met 
under 50 CFR Sec.  17.32 in order for permits to be issued for such 
activities.
    Under section 4(d) of the Act, the Secretary may issue, for 
threatened species, regulations necessary and advisable to provide for 
the conservation of the species. In this case, the special rule would 
allow the import and export of salmon-crested cockatoos held in 
captivity before January 18, 1990 (date the species was added to CITES 
Appendix I), whether taken from the wild or captive-bred, and of 
captive-bred salmon-crested cockatoos, without a permit issued under 
the Act, provided that the import or export complies with CITES and 
WBCA. CITES ensures that international trade in animal and plant 
species is not detrimental to the survival of wild populations by 
regulating the import, export, and reexport of CITES-listed animal and 
plant species. The purpose of the WBCA is to promote the conservation 
of exotic birds and to ensure that imports of exotic birds into the 
United States does not harm them. The best available commercial data 
indicates that the current threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems 
from illegal trade in the domestic and international markets of 
Indonesia and surrounding countries; the general prohibitions on import 
and export under the Act and 50 CFR 17.31 only extend within the 
jurisdiction of the United States and would not regulate such 
activities. Most salmon-crested cockatoo imports into and exports out 
of the United States are pets traveling with their owners. We did not 
find that import and export of salmon-crested cockatoos held in 
captivity before January 18, 1990 or bred in captivity contributes to 
either the species' habitat destruction or illegal trade. Thus, we find 
that the import and export requirements of the proposed special rule 
provide the necessary and advisable conservation measures that are 
needed for this species, while allowing U.S. citizens to continue 
traveling with their pet birds.
    We have no information to suggest that interstate commerce 
activities are associated with threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo 
or will negatively affect any efforts aimed at the recovery of wild 
populations of the species. At the same time, the prohibitions on take 
under 50 CFR 17.31 would apply under this special rule and any 
interstate commerce activities that could incidentally take cockatoos 
will require a permit under 50 CFR 17.32. Furthermore, allowing 
interstate commerce of birds captive-bred and reared in the United 
States will preclude U.S. demand for salmon-crested cockatoos obtained 
from international markets, which would otherwise contribute to the 
illegal capture and trade of wild birds. Therefore, we find the 
prohibitions and authorizations contained within this special rule are 
all that is necessary and advisable for the conservation of the salmon-
crested cockatoo.
    Comment (2c): The commenter also stated that interstate exchange is 
not hindered by listing and listing would not hinder the exchange of 
cockatoos between breeders within the United States, implying that the 
special rule is not needed to allow this type of activity.
    Our Response: Section 4(d) of the Act states that the Secretary may 
extend to threatened species prohibitions provided for endangered 
species under section 9. Our implementing regulations for threatened 
wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) incorporate the section 9 prohibitions for 
endangered wildlife, except when a special rule is promulgated. Under 
section 9(a)(1)(E) and (F) of the Act, it is unlawful for a person, 
subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, to deliver, receive, 
carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce or sell or 
offer for sale in interstate commerce or foreign commerce any such 
species. The special rule would allow for

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interstate commerce to accommodate, for example, breeders and owners of 
pet cockatoos within the United States. In addition, as stated above, 
allowing interstate commerce of birds captive-bred and reared in the 
United States will preclude any U.S. demand for salmon-crested 
cockatoos obtained from international markets, which would otherwise 
contribute to illegal capture and trade of this species.
    Comment (3): Another commenter also objected to the special rule. 
Objections included:
    Comment (3a): By allowing the import and export of certain captive 
salmon-crested cockatoos and interstate commerce, the United States 
will encourage additional illegal capture in Indonesia and allow wild 
birds to be imported under false pretenses, which will contribute to 
the cockatoo's decline. Significant covert trade persists in Indonesia. 
Traders are able to obtain illegal permits; salmon-crested cockatoos 
have been classified as white cockatoos (Cacatua alba), a legally 
traded species in Indonesia. The incentive to conduct illegal capture 
and trade is high, and parrot trapping accounts for 25 to 30 percent of 
the impoverished forest people of Seram's cash income.
    Our Response: The best available commercial data indicates that the 
current threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems from illegal trade, 
including the actions described by the commenter, in the domestic and 
international markets of Indonesia and surrounding countries. The Act 
cannot regulate the illegal trade of this species within the domestic 
and international markets of Indonesia. Although the import and export 
of salmon-crested cockatoos taken from the wild and held in captivity 
before January 18, 1990 and captive-bred salmon-crested cockatoos would 
not require a permit under the Act (See Our Response to Comment (2b) 
above), the import or export of these birds in the United States must 
comply with CITES and WBCA regulations. Most imports of salmon-crested 
cockatoos into and exports from the United States are pets traveling 
with their owners. We have no evidence to suggest that this type of 
activity contributes to either the species' habitat destruction or 
illegal capture and trade. Furthermore, allowing interstate commerce of 
birds captive-bred and reared in the United States will preclude any 
U.S. demand for salmon-crested cockatoos obtained from international 
markets, which would otherwise contribute to the illegal capture and 
trade of this species.
    Comment (3b): The commenter stated that the Service's assessment of 
the conservation needs of the salmon-crested cockatoo, based on its 
perceived success of the 1990 Appendix-I CITES listing, is unsound. The 
Service states that international trade of the species has gone down 
considerably since the listing of the species in Appendix I under 
CITES; however, this assertion is based only on officially reported 
trade information. In actuality, and in spite of the CITES Appendix-I 
listing and an Indonesian export ban, the salmon-crested cockatoo 
continues to be illegally captured on Seram and exported for 
international pet trade.
    Our Response: The Service acknowledges that even with the salmon-
crested cockatoo listed as an Appendix-I species under CITES and 
Indonesian laws put in place to protect salmon-crested cockatoos, 
illegal capture and trade are still concerns for the continued 
existence of this species. However, the best available commercial data 
indicate that illegal capture and international trade are centered in 
Indonesia and the bird markets of surrounding countries, not in the 
United States where the prohibitions of the Act and the special rule 
will apply on the effective date of this rule (see DATES). As most of 
the salmon-crested cockatoos imported into and exported from the United 
States are pet birds traveling with owners, we believe that the special 
rule does not contribute to the threats facing the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.

Summary of Changes From Proposed Rule

    We fully considered the comments we received from the public on the 
proposed rule when developing this final listing of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. This final rule incorporates changes to our proposed listing 
based on the comments that we received that are discussed above and 
newly available scientific and commercial information. Reviewers 
generally commented that the proposed rule was very thorough and 
comprehensive. We made some technical corrections based on new, 
although limited, information. None of the information, however, 
changed our determination that listing this species as threatened is 
warranted.

Species Information

Species Description

    Cockatoos are a distinct group of parrots (order Psittaciformes), 
distinguished by the presence of an erectile crest (Cameron 2007, p. 1; 
Collar 1989, p. 5) and the lack of dyck texture in their feathers, 
which produces blue and green coloration in the plumage of other 
parrots (Brown and Toft 1999, p. 141). The salmon-crested cockatoo 
(also known as the Seram, Moluccan, pink-crested, or rose-crested 
cockatoo) is the largest and the most striking of Indonesia's white 
cockatoos (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Its body length is 46-52 centimeters 
(cm) (15.6-20 inches (in)), and its plumage varies from pale salmon-
pink to whitish-pink. It has a long backward-curving, deep salmon-pink 
crest; the bill is large and gray-black; and the underwing and 
undertail are yellow-orange (BirdLife International (BLI) 2000, p. 242; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper and Parr 1998, pp. 280-281; Sweeney 2000, 
p. 130). Sexual dimorphism is exhibited by iris color; dark brown to 
black in adult males, reddish brown to red in females, and brown in 
immature birds (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278; Forshaw 1989, p. 141; 
Peratino 1979, p. 125).

Taxonomy

    In 1751, Edwards described and pictorially delineated the salmon-
crested cockatoo (Lint 1951, p. 223) and, in 1788, J.F. Gmelin named 
the species Psittacus moluccensis (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Lint 1951, p. 
223). In 1937, Peters (1937, p. 175) used the name Kakatoe moluccensis 
(Gmelin) in the Check-list of Birds of the World. In 1992, Andrew 
(1992, p. 21) used the name Cacatua moluccensis in the first published 
checklist of the birds of Indonesia. This name continues to be the 
recognized scientific name (Integrated Taxonomic Information System 
(ITIS) 2008, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 112), and the alternative 
genus name Kakatoe is now obsolete (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278).
    Some references (ITIS 2008, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 112) 
place cockatoos in the family Psittacidae with lories and true parrots, 
whereas others (CITES 2008a, p. 1; Cameron 2007, p. 1) place cockatoos 
in a separate family, Cacatuidae. Of the 21 cockatoo species, 11 are in 
the genus Cacatua (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3).
    The closest relatives of the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the South Moluccas, Indonesia (in the east central 
Indonesian island chain), are the umbrella cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the North Moluccas, and the blue-eyed cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the island of New Britain off the northeast coast of New 
Guinea (Cameron 2007, pp. 38-39, 51). In a biogeographic analysis of 
the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny, Brown and Toft (1999, pp. 150-
151) suggest that these three species may have had a common

[[Page 30761]]

ancestor that occupied an ancient landmass comprising Halmahera (a 
North Moluccan island) and Bismarck. The breakup of this landmass 
created two populations, and the subsequent dispersal of cockatoos from 
the North Moluccas to the South Moluccas created another population, 
which became the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cameron 2007, p. 56).

Range and Distribution

    Cockatoos are only found in Australasia--a few archipelagos in 
Southeast Asia (Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Tanimbar, Bismarck, 
and Solomon), New Guinea, and Australia--suggesting that the modern 
species arose after the breakup of Gondwanaland, a southern 
supercontinent that existed 200-500 million years ago. The 19th century 
naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was among the first to note the break 
in Australasian and Asian fauna. Wallace's line runs between the 
islands of Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Sulawesi, and south of the 
Philippines. Cockatoos are present on Lombok and Sulawesi, but not on 
Bali and Borneo. The line represents the western edge of a zone of 
overlap between Australasian and Asian fauna (known as Wallacea), with 
the eastern edge defined by the Australian continental shelf 
(Lydekker's Line) (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3; White and Bruce 1986, p. 32).
    The oceanic islands of Wallacea have a high level of endemism, 
which resulted in many islands being identified as Endemic Bird Areas 
(EBA) (Cameron 2007, p. 56). BLI designates EBAs by mapping bird 
species with restricted ranges of less than 50,000 square kilometers 
(km\2\) (19,300 square miles (mi\2\)) that overlap. The unique 
biodiversity concentrated in these small areas is particularly 
vulnerable; thus, EBAs represent priority areas for global biodiversity 
conservation (BLI 2008i, p. 1; Collar 2000, p. 27; Stattersfield et al. 
1998, pp. 39, 45). The salmon-crested cockatoo is included in the Seram 
EBA (BLI 2003, p. 1; Stattersfield et al. 1998, pp. 528-531).
Seram
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of Seram 
(alternate spelling, Ceram), with records from adjacent islands of 
Haruku, Saparua, and Ambon (formerly called Ambonia) in the South 
Moluccas (BLI 2001, p. 1662; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; Forshaw 
1989, p. 141; Peters 1937, p. 175). The species resides in lowland rain 
forests up to 1,000 meters (m) (3,608 feet (ft)), remains locally 
common in Manusela National Park, and appears to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island (BLI 2008a, p. 2; Isherwood et al. 
1998, p. 18). For a listing of specific distribution records of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo, see BLI (2001, p. 1662).
Ambon
    Whether this species is native or introduced to Ambon is uncertain. 
Stresemann (1934, p. 16) reported that the salmon-crested cockatoo did 
not occur on Ambon. Thus, some scientists follow the view that the 
species may have been introduced to this island (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; 
Lever 1987, p. 245; van Bemmel 1948, as cited in White and Bruce 1986, 
p. 212; Smiet 1985, p. 189; Long 1981, p. 247). The salmon-crested 
cockatoo was formerly traded in significant numbers, and shipments of 
birds from Seram transited through Ambon (the capital of the Maluku 
Province), where undoubtedly some birds escaped. Other scientists 
suggest that the cockatoos may well be wild birds (Poulsen and Jepson 
1996, pp. 159-160; Marsden 1992, pp. 12-13), with the persistence of a 
small population in northeast Ambon (Poulsen and Jepson 1996, p. 159).
Haruku and Saparua
    The status of the salmon-crested cockatoo on Haruku and Saparua is 
unknown (Metz 1998, p. 10), but the species may be extinct on these two 
islands (Metz 2002, p. 1; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 68). For Haruku, there 
is one unspecified locality and date of observation reported 
(Stresemann 1934, p. 16), but Poulsen and Jepson (1996, p. 160) did not 
find the species in 1994 or 1996. For Saparua, there is one specimen in 
the RMNH (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire (Leiden, Netherlands)) 
recorded in 1923 (BLI 2001, p. 1663).
    For purposes of this proposal, we consider the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's natural range to include Seram and the three islands of 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Although the status of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo is unknown on Haruku and Saparua, the species has been 
reported from these islands, and we are unaware of any survey that has 
conclusively found that the species no longer occurs there.

Habitat

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is believed to be a specialist of 
primary lowland forests (Kinnarid et al. 2003, p. 228). It occurs at 
altitudes between 100 and 1,000-1,200 m (328 and 3,608-3,926 ft) (BLI 
2008a, p. 2; Bowler and Taylor 1993, p. 149; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281), but rarely occurs above 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Cameron 2007, 
p. 77; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; Marsden 1992, p. 11; Smiet 1985, 
p. 189). Marsden (1992, p. 11) found that cockatoos tended to be 
recorded in mature, open-canopied lowland forests with some very large, 
tall trees and some low vegetation. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) 
found that cockatoo abundance was significantly associated with the 
presence of potential nest trees (Octomeles sumatranus) and strangling 
figs (Ficus spp.), a potential food source. Cameron (2007, pp. 77-78) 
noted that island cockatoos prefer lowland forests over montane forests 
because lowland forests contain greater plant diversity and, thus, have 
a more diverse and abundant food supply. They also support larger 
trees, which are more likely to have cavities needed for nesting--a 
critical resource because cockatoos are incapable of excavating their 
own nest cavities. The salmon-crested cockatoo prefers flat or gently 
sloping terrain.
    The highest densities of birds occur in little-disturbed, lowland 
forests below 300 m (984 ft), and the lowest densities occur in 
recently logged forests and in non-forested areas (Marsden 1998, p. 
608; Marsden 1992, p. 9). However, Marsden and Fielding (1999, p. 444) 
were unable to find differences in the species' presence based on 
habitat associations, and Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
densities did not correspond closely to habitat differences across 
study sites. Marsden (1992, p. 11) suggested that the apparent 
differences in cockatoo densities between young logged forests and 
secondary forests, which have similar vegetation parameters, may be 
caused by differential trapping pressures and patterns of disturbance, 
differences in tree species compositions and overall habitat 
heterogeneity, and differences in cockatoo densities in areas before 
logging.
    Lower densities of birds occur in transition and submontane forests 
and on the edges of cultivated areas. Birds also occur in open canopy 
forests with low vegetation and in riverine forests (Juniper and Parr 
1998, p. 281). Despite trapping pressure, birds still occur in mature 
lowland forests near settlements (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Marsden 1992, p. 11), but they are rarely seen near human habitation 
(Smiet 1985, p. 189). Marsden (1992, pp. 9, 11) found cockatoos to be 
rare or irregular in other habitats, including plantations, grassland, 
rank scrub, and agricultural lands. The species previously occurred in 
coastal areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281), before land was 
converted to human uses (FAO 1981, as cited in Marsden 1992, p. 7). 
Small numbers of

[[Page 30762]]

salmon-crested cockatoo have been observed in forested hills on Ambon. 
No other information was available on the habitat of this species on 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua.
Topography
    Seram is a densely wooded island (Metz 1998, p. 10) of 18,625 km\2\ 
(7,189 mi\2\) (Smiet 1985, p. 183)--about the size of New Jersey 
(Morrison 2001, p. 1). The topography is extremely variable and the 
interior of the island is rugged and mostly mountainous (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies between latitudes 2[deg]46' and 
3[deg]53' south of the Equator. It is approximately 340 kilometers (km) 
(211 miles (mi)) long and 55-70 km (34-43 mi) wide in the center. Its 
highest point is Gunung Binaiya at approximately 3,027 m (9,929 ft) 
above sea level. It is the second largest island in the Moluccas. This 
group of about 1,000 islands is also known as the Spice Islands, 
because they include the original home of both nutmeg (Myristica 
fragrans) and cloves (Syzgium aromaticum) (Edwards 1993, p. 1).
Forests
    Seram's wet climate supports mainly evergreen forests (Marsden 
1998, p. 606). The alluvial plains originally supported tall lowland 
forests characterized by the only endemic dipterocarp on the island, 
Shorea selanica (`meranti'), and also Canarium, Elaeocarpus sphaericus, 
Calophyllum, Intsia, and Myristica (Coates and Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17; 
Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 7). Shorea selanica has developed 
remarkable dominance in the lowland forests of north Seram, 
representing about 30 percent of individual trees and 76 percent of the 
basal area (Edwards et al. 1993, p. 66). The forest is relatively open-
crowned with a sparse understory, with the floor being swept clean by 
floods during the wet season. Along the major rivers, the lowland 
forest is characterized by Octomeles sumatrana, Eucalyptus deglupta, 
Pometia pinnata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus, Litsea, and Eugenia 
(Coates and Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17).
Climate
    Most of Seram receives between 2,500 and 3,000 millimeters (mm) 
(97.5 and 117 inches (in)) of rain per year, with more in the east and 
northeast. The long monsoonal seasons (Metz 1998, p. 11; White and 
Bruce 1986, p. 24) and mountainous terrain affect the amount of 
rainfall. Annual and monthly rainfall is not uniform and varies by 
region (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies outside the main 
zone of cyclonic storms (Coates and Bishop 1997, p. 22). The lowlands 
have a humid tropical climate with temperatures at sea level of 25-30 
degrees Celsius ([deg]C) (77-86 degrees Fahrenheit ([deg]F)). 
Temperature decreases with altitude, with a fall of approximately 6 
[deg]C (10.8 [deg]F) for every rise of 1,000 m (3,280 ft), leading to a 
marked temperature gradient within the mountain areas (Edwards 1993, p. 
6).
Land use
    The human population of Seram is concentrated in low-lying areas 
along the coast and in the west. The mountainous interior supports very 
few villages (Edwards 1993, p. 7). The majority of Seram is lowland 
forest or montane forest (see Table 1). While only about 11 percent of 
the island has been converted to agricultural lands, settlements, and 
plantations or is considered unproductive, logging concessions cover 
nearly 50 percent of the island. About 85 percent of Seram lies below 
600 m (1,968 ft) and another 10 percent lies between 600 and 1,000 m 
(1,968 and 3,280 ft). Within this elevation where cockatoos occur, ``* 
* * most of the forest has been classified as production or conversion 
forest, categories that permit land clearing and forest disturbance'' 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230).

              Table 1--Habitat and Land Use for Seram and Established and Proposed Protected Areas
    [Data are based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 1990 (NP = National Park; NR = Nature Reserve)
                                         (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230)]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       Area
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Habitat/land use                                                                       Proposed Wai Bula
                                         Seram            Manusela NP      Gunung Sahuwai NR          NR
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lowland Forest..................  14,026.5 km\2\      1,522.5 km\2\       118.9 km\2\ (45.9   561.8 km\2\ (216.9
                                   (5,414.2 mi\2\).    (587.7 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\).
Mangrove Forest.................  77.6 km\2\ (30      ..................  ..................  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\).                                                     mi\2\).
Montane Forest..................  1,065.3 km\2\       693.9 km\2\ (267.8
                                   (411.2 mi\2\).      mi\2\).
Swamp Forest....................  203.5 km\2\ (78.6   ..................  ..................  14.6 km\2\ (5.6
                                   mi\2\).                                                     mi\2\).
Water Body......................  1.2 mi\2\ (3.0
                                   km\2\).
Agriculture.....................  789.1 km\2\ (304.6  50 km\2\ (19.3      ..................  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\).             mi\2\).                                 mi\2\).
Plantation......................  22.0 km\2\ (8.5
                                   mi\2\).
Settlement......................  21.3 km\2\ (8.2     3.2 km\2\ (1.2      ..................  0.5 km\2\ (0.2
                                   mi\2\).             mi\2\).                                 mi\2\).
Unproductive Lands..............  1,082.2 km\2\       53.6 km\2\ (20.7    3.9 km\2\ (1.5
                                   (417.7 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\)
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total.......................  17,288.7 km\2\      2,323.2 km\2\       122.8 km\2\ (47.4   596.1 km\2\ (230.1
                                   (6,676.0 mi\2\).    (896.8 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

    BLI (2008b, p. 2) has identified five IBAs that include the salmon-
crested cockatoo. A site is recognized as an IBA when it meets criteria 
``* * * based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable 
to global extinction or whose populations are otherwise 
irreplaceable.'' These key sites for conservation are small enough to 
be conserved in their entirety and large enough to support self-
sustaining populations of the key bird species. IBAs are a way to 
identify conservation priorities (BLI 2008j, pp. 1-2). The following 
briefly describes the IBAs for the salmon-crested cockatoo.
Gunung Sahuwai
    Located on the western peninsula of Seram, Gunung Sahuwai contains 
122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) of land that was declared a Nature Reserve on 
November 30, 1993 (SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 805/Kpts-II/1993) (BLI 
2008c, p. 2). The Nature Reserve contains 96.8 percent lowland forest 
and 3.2 percent unproductive lands (see Table 1) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, 
p. 230). The number of cockatoos here is unknown. The coastal area 
contains 14 settlements. Most people work as farmers and fishermen. The 
main commodities are cloves, nutmeg, and coconut for copra. The local 
people hunt and collect forest products. Conservation concerns for the 
salmon-

[[Page 30763]]

crested cockatoo relate to the clearance of natural habitat for 
plantation, shifting agriculture, and collection of birds (BLI 2008c, 
pp. 1-2).
Gunung Salahutu
    The habitat is forest, and the topography is hilly up to 1,038 m 
(3,405 ft). The cockatoo was found in this area at one time, but is 
probably extinct in this area now. The coastal area contains two 
villages. Most of the people work as dry land farmers and fishermen. 
The main commodities are clove, nutmeg, cacao, and marine products. 
Conservation concerns for the salmon-crested cockatoo relate to forest 
clearance for plantation, firewood collection, and hunting of animals 
for consumption or pets (BLI 2008d, pp. 1-2).
Manusela
    This area consists of forests and wetlands (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2). 
Manusela National Park is located in the central part of Seram and 
stretches from the north coast to within 5 km (3 mi) of the south coast 
(Edwards 1993, p. 6). It is 2,323.2 km\2\ (896.8 mi\2\) in size and 
covers approximately 10 to 11 percent of Seram (BLI 2008e, p. 2; 
Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Bowler and Taylor 1993, p. 158; Marsden 
1992, p. 7; Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 3). It was declared a national 
park on October 14, 1982 (SK Menteri Pertanian No. 736/Mentan/X/1982) 
(BLI 2008e, p. 2). Based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 
1990, habitat and land use for Manusela National Park can be summarized 
as: 65.5 percent lowland forest; 29.9 percent montane forest; and 4.6 
percent agriculture, settlement, and unproductive lands (see Table 1) 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). Approximately 26 percent of the park is 
above 1,000 m (3,608 ft), an altitude where the salmon-crested cockatoo 
generally does not occur, and only 27 percent is below 500 m (1,640 
ft), an altitude preferred by the salmon-crested cockatoo (Marsden 
1992, p. 7). A road has been built through the park, which increases 
the risks of logging (Metz 1998, p. 10). Five villages of indigenous 
people exist as an enclave of the park. Most of the people work as dry 
land farmers; they also hunt and collect forest products, such as sago, 
rattan, resin, eaglewood, and parrots (BLI 2008e, p. 1). In 1980, 999 
people lived within the park boundaries, and 19,102 lived within 10 km 
(6 mi) of its boundaries (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, App. 6). Clearing 
of the land for agriculture and gardens has resulted in a patchwork of 
cleared fields, secondary vegetation (including large bamboo thickets), 
old growth forests, and undisturbed primary forests. Conservation 
concerns for the salmon-crested cockatoo relate to logging, road 
development, encroachment by plantation companies, mining (Monk et al. 
1997, as cited in BLI 2008e, p. 2), shifting agriculture, and parrot 
catching for trade (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2).
Pegunungan Taunusa
    The habitat is forest and the area has a mountain with the highest 
peak in Seram. The southern coastal area contains five villages. Most 
of the people work as farmers and fishermen. Main products are coconut 
for copra, clove, and cacao (BLI 2008f, p. 1). The Service was unable 
to find information on the number of salmon-crested cockatoos in this 
area or activities that may be affecting the conservation of the 
species in Pegunungan Taunusa.
Wai Bula
    The habitat is forest in northeastern Seram. BLI (2008f, p. 1) 
estimates that Wae Wufa, an area inside Wai Bula that is primary 
lowland and lower montane evergreen forests, has around 40-60 salmon-
crested cockatoos. Approximately 596.1 km\2\ (230.1 mi\2\) of Wai Bula 
was proposed as a Nature Reserve in 1981, but the area has never been 
officially designated as a reserve (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). Land 
use for the proposed Nature Reserve can be summarized as follows: 94.2 
percent lowland forest; 2.5 percent agriculture and settlement; 2.4 
percent swamp forest; and 1.6 percent mangrove forest (see Table 1). 
Based on density estimates derived from surveys in western Seram, 
researchers estimated that the area provides habitat for a minimum of 
2,500 cockatoos (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230, 233) (see Factor A for 
discussion). This estimate differs significantly from the number of 
cockatoos estimated by BLI to occur inside Wae Wufa. We were unable to 
reconcile these estimates because we could not find information on the 
area of Wae Wufa, how much of the cockatoo's suitable habitat within 
Wai Bula occurs in Wae Wufa, and the basis for the BLI estimate. The 
coast contains four villages. Most people work as farmers and 
fishermen. The main plantation products are coconut for copra, cacao, 
and coffee. The conservation concern for the salmon-crested cockatoo 
relates to logging (BLI 2008g, pp. 1-2).

Natural History

Behavior
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is most active in early morning and 
late afternoon (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281), calling loudly when leaving and returning to roost. The 
cockatoo's call is a wailing cry, which can be heard from a distance of 
1 km (0.6 mi), and roosts can easily be located due to the noise. The 
species is shy and flies off when disturbed. Birds move slowly through 
the canopy in the early morning and are usually not seen or heard 
during the heat of the day. They are found in groups of up to 16 birds, 
although the size of non-breeding flocks appear to have been 
dramatically reduced due to the recent population decline (Juniper and 
Parr 1998, p. 281). They fly using a few rapid wing beats, followed by 
gliding, and then a few more wing beats (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141).
Food
    This species feeds on fruit of the kenari tree (Canarium commune, 
C. vulgare, and C. indicum) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37), nuts, seeds, 
berries, and insects (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281). Their abundance is positively related to the density of 
strangling figs, a potentially important food resource (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 233). Research by O'Brien et al. (1998, p. 668) showed that 
figs may be a keystone plant resource for many fruit-eating birds. On 
the average, figs contain calcium levels 3.2 times higher than other 
fruits, promoting eggshell deposition and bone growth. Salmon-crested 
cockatoos are suspected of taking Pandanus spp. fruits (Bishop in 
prep., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 1665). They pick larvae from fallen, 
rotting tree trunks (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37). They also eat young 
coconuts (Cocos nucifera) by chewing through the tough outer covering 
to get at the pulp and water inside (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Wallace 1864, p. 279). In general, island 
cockatoos are thought to need to exploit all the available food in 
order to maintain a healthy population because islands typically 
contain fewer plant species and the quantity of food is restricted by 
an islands' relatively small size (Cameron 2007, p. 83).
Breeding
    Its favored nest tree is Octomeles sumatranus (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 230). During times of nest building, brooding, and fledging, 
birds stay close to the nest tree (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36). Courtship 
display can last up to 20

[[Page 30764]]

minutes, with the male and female perched in the top of an emergent or 
dead forest tree, raising and lowering their crests, fanning their 
large face and neck feathers forward to increase the size of the head 
(Cameron 2007, p. 57), calling loudly, breaking twigs, and making 
short, weak, fluttering flights. The nest is a high hole in a mature 
tree (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281). The salmon-crested cockatoo 
removes the bark immediately surrounding the entrance to help prevent 
predators, such as snakes or monitor lizards, from gaining access to 
the eggs or chicks, and may also clear the surrounding foliage perhaps 
to have a better view for the brooding hen. The nest site is fiercely 
guarded from competitors, such as the Eclectus parrot (Eclectus 
roratus) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37).
    Little is known about seasonality and breeding biology of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228), or 
other demographic information, such as reproductive effort and success 
and age-specific mortality rates--information that is important to 
determine where the primary weak points in the life equation lie 
(Snyder et al. 2000, p. 9). The cockatoo is thought to breed between 
July and August or September, and probably a second time at the 
beginning of the year (Metz and Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Stresemann 
(1914, p. 86) observed a pair in a nesting cavity about 25 m (82 ft) up 
the trunk of a living tree in early May. The cockatoo lines the cavity 
with wood chips, and usually lays two white eggs, although only one 
chick is raised (Metz and Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Both parents help to 
incubate the eggs during the 28-day incubation period. Young birds take 
4-5 years to reach maturity (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281).

Population Estimates

Seram--Historical Population Estimates
    Historically, there are few quantitative observations of this 
species in the wild. In 1864, Wallace (1864, p. 279) described the 
salmon-crested cockatoo as ``abundant'' on Seram. In 1911, Stresemann 
(1914, p. 86) reported that the species was fairly common in coastal 
regions. The species was regarded as locally common in 1970 (Juniper 
and Parr 1998, p. 281). During 1980 and 1981 (Forshaw 1989, p. 141), 
Smiet (1985, p. 189) observed that this species was locally common in 
primary forests up to 900 m (2,952 ft) in the interior and in 
undisturbed forests, where 10 to 16 birds were seen congregating in 
roosting trees. He did not see any birds on the western part of the 
island, although the cockatoo was said to be common there until about 
1970. In 1980, small flocks were observed in the south of the island 
(White and Bruce 1986, p. 212), and cockatoos were frequently seen 
throughout Manusela National Park below 900 m, except in the southern 
part of the Mual Plains in the center of the park where they were not 
common (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 9). In September 1983, Bishop 
(1992, p. 2) observed four cockatoos in secondary woodland in southwest 
Seram.
    Rangers at the Manusela National Park commented on a dramatic 
decline in the species in the mid-1980s (Collar and Andrew 1988, p. 
69). By 1987, it was the rarest parrot in Manusela National Park 
(Bishop 1992, p. 2). Due to the international pet trade, Bishop 
considered the species to be endangered and in need of critical 
management to avoid imminent extinction (Bishop 1992, p. 1). Between 
July 20 and September 25, 1987, an Operation Raleigh team found the 
species to be ``very scarce and absent from large tracts of suitable 
habitat'' in Manusela National Park (Bowler 1988, p. 6). During 40 days 
of field work, they made 54 sightings, resulting in a maximum of 20 
individual birds in prime habitat. In addition, birds were observed 
either singly or in pairs, never in flocks. Encounter rates were the 
lowest of any parrot species at 0.3 birds per hour in lowland rain 
forests around Solea at about 100 m (328 ft) and 0.1 per hour in the 
Kineka area at 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Bowler and Taylor 1989, p. 
17; Bowler 1988, p. 6). Marsden (1992, pp. 11-12) suggested that the 
densities of cockatoos, which Bowler and Taylor found in the Manusela 
National Park enclave, may be naturally low because the forest has been 
heavily disturbed and the area is at the upper end of the species' 
altitudinal range. He found it difficult to relate Bowler and Taylor's 
low figures for lowland forests around Solea to what he found in 1989 
(see below). BLI also questioned the validity of the numbers, because 
Bowler and Taylor are now judged to have worked mainly at higher 
elevations in Manusela (BLI 2001, pp. 1664, 1668). Metz (1998, p. 10) 
suggested that the stronghold of this cockatoo is likely on Seram, 
almost exclusively outside of the borders of the national park.
    During 5 weeks beginning December 19, 1989, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-8; 
Marsden 1998, p. 606) collected field data in Manusela National Park 
and in lowland habitats in central and northeast Seram, using the 
variable circular plot method to estimate densities of the salmon-
crested cockatoo. Encounter rates were 1.0 bird per hour in primary 
forests, 2.5 birds in disturbed primary forests, and 0.4 birds in 
secondary and in recently logged forests. While cockatoo densities were 
similar in primary (9.1 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\)) and disturbed 
primary forests (9.8 birds), densities were lower in secondary forests 
(6.4 birds), and much lower in recently logged forests (1.9 birds), 
suggesting that large-scale logging might adversely affect the species' 
population.
    Between July and September 1996, the Wai Bula '96 (a conservation 
expedition from Cambridge University and Universitas Pattimura, Ambon) 
found the salmon-crested cockatoo to be widely dispersed in northeast 
Seram in the Wae Fufa Valley (primary lowland and lower montane 
evergreen forests) and in degraded coastal forests near Hoti (coastal 
secondary lowland forests), where pairs and small flocks were a common 
sight. They suggested that the bulk of the population probably occurs 
in eastern Seram (Isherwood et al. 1998, p. 18). Juniper and Parr 
(1998, p. 281) reported that the world population was ``thought still 
to be above 8,000.''
Seram--Recent Population Estimates
    The most recent research (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232) estimated 
the total salmon-crested cockatoo population to be 110,385 birds (with 
confidence limits of a minimum 62,416 and a maximum of 195,242). Based 
on the research assumptions (see below), we agree with BLI (2001, p. 
1664) that ``* * * the figure of 62,400 is chosen as the appropriate 
population figure.''
    These numbers were generated by joint population surveys conducted 
by the Wildlife Conservation Society Indonesia Program, BLI Indonesia 
Program, and Pelastarian Hutan Dan Konservasi Alam, Ministry of 
Forestry, Government of Indonesia in May-September 1998. Cockatoo 
censuses were conducted at seven sites in western and central Seram 
using line-transect methods (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 228, 230, 234). 
Five of the sites were considered primary lowland forest and two had 
been previously logged or were disturbed by humans (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 228). Cockatoos were observed at all sites as single 
individuals or pairs. Estimates of density varied widely among 
locations, ranging from 0.93 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\) at Kawa to 
17.25 birds per 1 km\2\ at Roho. The mean density was 7.87 birds per 1 
km\2\, which was considered indicative of all sites because it included 
estimates from primary and logged forests. The researchers were unable 
to complete the census before the outbreak of civil war; thus, data 
from the western part of

[[Page 30765]]

Seram were used to estimate the number of cockatoos on all of Seram.
    The population estimate was generated by working with GIS-based 
estimates of lowland forest habitat on Seram (14,026 km\2\ (5,414.2 
mi\2\)) below 600 m (1,968 ft). This is based on the assumption that 
all lowland forests provide adequate habitat for cockatoos and that 
densities remain constant across the island (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 
232). Because these assumptions are unlikely, Kinnaird (2000, p. 15) 
explained the scenarios considered by the researchers. Cockatoos are 
fairly tolerant of degraded habitat, but they still need nesting trees 
and have a preference for areas with lots of large strangling figs. The 
first scenario involved the number and extent of logging concessions 
operating on Seram during the 10-year-period from 1989-1999, which 
resulted in a reduction of 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of lowland forest 
habitat for cockatoos. The population estimate still hovered between 
90,000 and 100,000 birds. The second scenario looked at continued 
logging and habitat loss during the next decade, projecting that the 
population size would decline by another 10 percent. These two 
estimates may have underestimated cockatoo population size because many 
logging concessions are not working at full capacity. On the other 
hand, the estimates ignored additional losses due to the capturing of 
birds for the pet trade. The population estimate also ignored the 
variability in how logging companies harvest their concessions (i.e., 
greater or less than the legal maximum intensity). If logging 
concessions harvest timber in a conventional manner of up to 1,000 
hectare (ha) (2,470 acre (ac)) per year, Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) 
assumed that cockatoos will persist but at possibly lower densities.
    In 1985, Smiet (1985, pp. 193-194) suggested that the relative 
resilience of most Moluccan parrots under trade pressure and habitat 
destruction can be attributed to a combination of factors, including: 
(1) A great reproductive capacity (especially in the smaller species); 
(2) adaptability to habitat alteration (which tends to provide a 
relative abundance of flowering and fruiting plants); (3) persistence 
of some original, undisturbed habitat; and (4) island isolation and 
lack of predators, parasites, and competitive species. Metz (2005, p. 
34), however, cautioned that the current population estimate should not 
be a ``cause for complacency.'' He suggested that the number of birds 
capable of breeding, or the breeding success rate, might be low for 
this species because: They have a long life span, and many birds might 
be past breeding age; there is a very high poaching pressure and 
trappers mostly take adult birds, which depletes the number of breeding 
birds; and the salmon-crested cockatoo has a slow reproductive cycle 
and unknown, but possibly low, fledging success rate. These opinions 
point out the need for further research on this species to better 
understand its population size and its ability to adapt to the habitat 
destruction and trade that is occurring on Seram.
Ambon
    Very small numbers of salmon-crested cockatoos are thought to occur 
in remaining natural forests in the more remote regions of Ambon 
(Poulsen and Jepson 1996, p. 160). While Smiet (1985, p. 189) lived on 
the island from 1980 to 1981, he did not see the species there; 
however, he wrote that the species was said to be common on Ambon until 
about 10 years ago. In 1992, Marsden (1992, pp. 12-13) reported seeing 
eight salmon-crested cockatoos and three unidentified cockatoos during 
brief searches of remaining forest patches on Ambon. He suggested that 
most free flying salmon-crested cockatoos on Ambon may be wild birds, 
either resident and possibly breeding or visiting birds from Seram. 
Local people told him that cockatoos were still present in the area, 
but rare in other forested areas on the island. Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, pp. 159-160) confirmed that wild populations of salmon-crested 
cockatoos occur on Ambon. On May 28 and June 11, 1995, they observed 
six to eight cockatoos, in forested hills behind Hila on the north 
coast of the Hitu Peninsula, overlooking a forested valley at about 300 
m (984 ft) and in forest edge around shifting cultivation at about 500 
m (1,640 ft).

Conservation Status

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is protected from capture and trade 
under Indonesian laws (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5, 1990, and Law 
No. 7, 1999) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). 
Intentional violations may lead to imprisonment of up to 5 years and 
fines up to 100 million IDR (Indonesian rupiah) (which amounts to 
approximately 10,000 USD (U.S. dollar)). Negligent violations may lead 
to imprisonment of up to 1 year and fines up to 50 million IDR (5,000 
USD). The government may seize and confiscate specimens of protected 
animals. The Department of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation is 
responsible for implementing the law, and the Natural Resources 
Conservation Agency, working with police, Customs, and other 
enforcement agencies, is responsible for enforcing the law (Shepherd et 
al. 2004, p. 4).
    The species is listed on the IUCN (International Union for 
Conservation of Nature) Red List as `Vulnerable' because it has 
suffered a rapid population decline as a result of trapping for the pet 
bird trade and because of deforestation in its small range. BLI (2004, 
p. 1) projects the decline will continue and perhaps accelerate. The 
current population is estimated at 62,400 individuals (BLI 2001, p. 
1664), with a decreasing population trend; the decline for the past and 
the future 10 years or 3 generations is estimated at 30 to 49 percent 
(BLI 2008b, p. 1). The current trend is justified by the suspected 
rapid decline of the species due to ongoing and prolific capture for 
the Indonesian domestic pet trade (BLI 2008b, p. 2). Ongoing threats 
are habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-
cutting, agriculture, infrastructure development (settlement and 
hydroelectric projects), and harvesting (hunting and gathering for the 
domestic and international pet trade) (BLI 2004, pp. 1-2).
    The cockatoo is also protected by CITES, one of the most important 
means of controlling international trade in animal and plant species 
threatened by trade. CITES is an international agreement through which 
member countries, or Parties, work together to ensure that 
international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants is not 
detrimental to the survival of wild populations by regulating import, 
export, and re-export. Although almost all Psittaciformes species, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo, were included in CITES Appendix 
II in 1981 (CITES 2008a, p. 1), the species was transferred to CITES 
Appendix I effective January 18, 1990, because populations were 
declining rapidly due to uncontrolled trapping for the international 
pet bird trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 1-7). An Appendix-I listing includes 
species threatened with extinction whose trade is permitted only under 
exceptional circumstances, which generally precludes commercial trade. 
The import of an Appendix-I species requires the issuance of both an 
import and export permit. Import permits are issued only if findings 
are made that the import would be for purposes that are not detrimental 
to the survival of the species in the wild and that the specimen will 
not be used for primarily commercial purposes (CITES Article III(3)). 
Export permits are issued only if findings are made that the specimen 
was legally acquired and trade is not

[[Page 30766]]

detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild (CITES Article 
III(2)). The United States and Indonesia, along with 173 other 
countries, are members to CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1).
    The import of salmon-crested cockatoos into the United States is 
also regulated by the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901 
et seq.), which was enacted on October 23, 1992. The purpose of the 
WBCA is to promote the conservation of exotic birds by ensuring that 
all trade involving the United States is sustainable and is not 
detrimental to the species. Permits may be issued to allow import of 
listed birds for scientific research, zoological breeding or display, 
or personal pet purposes when certain criteria are met. The Service may 
approve cooperative breeding programs and subsequently issue import 
permits under such programs. Wild-caught birds may be imported into the 
United States if they are subject to Service-approved management plans 
for sustainable use. At this time, the salmon-crested cockatoo is not 
part of a Service-approved cooperative breeding program and does not 
have an approved management plan for wild-caught birds (FWS 2008, p. 
1).
    The IUCN Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000-2004 for 
Parrots (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66) identified a need to clarify the 
status of the salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild, including: (1) 
Determining the species' relative abundance in each habitat type, and 
(2) collecting information on the size and distribution of habitat 
types, trapping, timber extraction, and breeding success of cockatoos 
in primary and secondary forests because it is unknown if the salmon-
crested cockatoo will survive in degraded secondary forests in the long 
term. At present, inadequate information on the species, its habitat, 
and the effects of human activities on the species makes it difficult 
to make recommendations on regional development, such as reserve 
boundaries, land-use zoning, and possible new provincial forestry and 
agriculture policies, to ensure the species' survival. The information 
would also provide a baseline for monitoring and determining the degree 
to which trade affects the status of this species (Snyder et al. 2000, 
pp. 66, 69).

Summary of Factors Affecting the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo

    Section 4 of the Act and its implementing regulations (50 CFR 424) 
set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists of 
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. A species may be 
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more 
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The 
present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its 
habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the 
inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or 
manmade factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may 
be warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in 
combination. Each of these factors for the salmon-crested cockatoo is 
discussed below.

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of the Species' Habitat or Range

    The lowland forest habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo is being 
impacted by logging (including the failure to use wise logging 
practices during selective logging), illegal logging, conversion of 
forests to agriculture and plantations, transmigration of people, oil 
exploration, and infrastructure development.
Logging
    Commercial timber extraction is listed by the IUCN Red List to be a 
continuing major threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo, with a medium 
impact and a slow decline of the species (BLI 2008b, p. 3). Research 
that assessed a species-area relationship suggested that deforestation 
affects endemic bird species restricted to single islands most severely 
(Brooks et al. 1997, p. 392).
    Between 2000 and 2005, Indonesia's forest cover declined by more 
than 90,000 km\2\ (34,740 mi\2\). Lowland areas, which offer important 
habitat for Indonesia's cockatoos, have been the most severely impacted 
(Cameron 2007, p. 177; Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 1 p. 2). On the islands 
of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesian islands to the far west of 
Seram), the World Bank predicted that all lowland rain forests outside 
of protected areas would be degraded by 2005 and 2010, respectively 
(Rhee et al. 2004, p. xviii). In many areas of Indonesia,