Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Three Foreign Bird Species From Latin America and the Caribbean as Endangered Throughout Their Range, 50814-50842 [2010-19965]
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Federal Register / Vol. 75, No. 158 / Tuesday, August 17, 2010 / Rules and Regulations
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2009–0092;
90100–16601–FLA–B6]
RIN 1018–AV76
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
and Plants; Listing Three Foreign Bird
Species From Latin America and the
Caribbean as Endangered Throughout
Their Range
Fish and Wildlife Service,
Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
AGENCY:
We, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (Service), determine
endangered status for three species of
birds from Latin America and the
Caribbean—the Andean flamingo
(Phoenicoparrus andinus), the Chilean
woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and the St.
Lucia forest thrush (Cichlherminia
lherminieri sanctaeluciae)—under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act).
DATES: This final rule is effective
September 16, 2010.
ADDRESSES: This final rule is available
on the Internet at https://
www.regulations.gov. Comments and
materials received, as well as supporting
documentation used in the preparation
of this rule, are available for public
inspection, by appointment, during
normal business hours at: U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Branch of Foreign
Species, Endangered Species Program,
4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420,
Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703–
358–2171.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
Janine VanNorman, Chief, Branch of
Foreign Species, Endangered Species
Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420,
Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703–
358–2171; facsimile 703–358–1735. If
you use a telecommunications device
for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at
800–877–8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
SUMMARY:
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Background
In this final rule, we determine
endangered status for the Andean
flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus), the
Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and
the St. Lucia forest thrush
(Cichlherminia lherminieri
sanctaeluciae).
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Previous Federal Actions
On November 24, 1980, we received
a petition (1980 petition) from Dr.
Warren B. King, Chairman of the
International Council for Bird
Preservation (ICBP), to add 60 foreign
bird species to the List of Threatened
and Endangered Wildlife (50 CFR
17.11(h)), including two species (the
Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia
forest thrush) that are the subject of this
final rule. In response to the 1980
petition, we published a positive 90-day
finding on May 12, 1981 (46 FR 26464)
for 58 foreign species, noting that 2 of
the foreign species identified in the
petition were already listed under the
Act, and initiated a status review. On
January 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485), we
published a 12-month finding within an
annual review on pending petitions and
description of progress on all species
petition findings addressed therein. In
that notice, we found that all 58 foreign
bird species from the 1980 petition were
warranted but precluded by higher
priority listing actions. On May 10,
1985, we published the first annual
notice (50 FR 19761), in which we
continued to find that listing all 58
foreign bird species from the 1980
petition was warranted but precluded.
In our next annual notice, published on
January 9, 1986 (51 FR 996), we found
that listing 54 species from the 1980
petition, including the 2 species that are
the subject of this final rule, continued
to be warranted but precluded, whereas
new information caused us to find that
listing 4 other species in the 1980
petition was no longer warranted. We
published additional annual notices on
the remaining 54 species included in
the 1980 petition on July 7, 1988 (53 FR
25511); December 29, 1988 (53 FR
52746); and November 21, 1991 (56 FR
58664), in which we indicated that
listing the Chilean woodstar and the St.
Lucia forest thrush, along with the
remaining species in the 1980 petition,
continued to be warranted but
precluded.
On May 6, 1991, we received a
petition (hereafter referred to as the
1991 petition) from ICBP, to add 53
species of foreign birds to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife,
including the Andean flamingo, also the
subject of this final rule. In response to
the 1991 petition, we published a
positive 90-day finding on December 16,
1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 53 species,
and announced the initiation of a status
review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR
14496), we published a 12-month
finding on the 1991 petition, along with
a proposed rule to list 30 African birds
under the Act (15 each from the 1980
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petition and 1991 petition). In that
document, we announced our finding
that listing the remaining 38 species
from the 1991 petition, including
Andean flamingo, was warranted but
precluded by higher priority listing
actions. On January 12, 1995 (60 FR
2899), we published the final rule to list
the 30 African birds and reiterated the
warranted-but-precluded status of the
remaining species from the 1991
petition. We made subsequent
warranted-but-precluded findings for all
outstanding foreign species from the
1980 and 1991 petitions, including the
three species that are the subject of this
final rule, as published in our annual
notice of review (ANOR) on May 21,
2004 (69 FR 29354), and April 23, 2007
(72 FR 20184).
Per the Service’s listing priority
guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR
43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the
listing priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging
from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign
species. The LPNs for the three species
of birds in this final rule were as
follows: Andean flamingo (LPN 2),
Chilean woodstar (LPN 4), and St. Lucia
forest thrush (LPN 3).
On January 23, 2008, the United
States District Court for the Northern
District of California ordered the Service
to issue proposed listing rules for five
foreign bird species, actions which had
been previously determined to be
warranted but precluded: Andean
flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus),
black-breasted puffleg (Eriocnemis
nigrivestis), Chilean woodstar (Eulidia
yarrellii), medium tree finch
(Camarhynchus pauper), and St. Lucia
forest thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri
sanctaeluciae). The court ordered the
Service to issue proposed listing rules
for these species by the end of 2008.
On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we
published in the Federal Register a
notice announcing our annual petition
findings for foreign species. In that
notice, we announced listing to be
warranted for 30 foreign bird species,
including the 5 species that are subject
to the January 23, 2008, court order, of
which 3 species are the subject of this
final rule. The medium tree finch and
black-breasted puffleg are the subjects of
separate rules. The proposed rules for
the medium tree finch and blackbreasted puffleg published in the
Federal Register on December 8, 2008
(73 FR 74434 and 73 FR 74427,
respectively). The final rule for the
black-breasted puffleg published on July
27, 2010 (75 FR 43844).
On December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226),
we published a Federal Register notice
proposing endangered status for the
Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus
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andinus), the Chilean woodstar (Eulidia
yarrellii), and the St. Lucia forest thrush
(Cichlherminia lherminieri
sanctaeluciae). We implemented the
Service’s peer review process and
opened a 60-day comment period to
solicit scientific and commercial
information on the species from all
interested parties following publication
of the proposed rule.
Summary of Comments and
Recommendations
In the proposed rule published on
December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226), we
requested that all interested parties
submit written comments on the
proposal by February 23, 2009. We
received one comment on the proposed
rule from the public that did not
support the proposal and one comment
that supported the proposal; neither
comment contained substantive
information. We did not receive any
requests for a public hearing.
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Peer Review
In accordance with our peer review
policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR
34270), we solicited expert opinion
from 12 knowledgeable individuals with
scientific expertise that included
familiarity with the Andean flamingo,
Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest
thrush and their habitats, biological
needs, and threats. We received
responses from three of the peer
reviewers, one for each of the species.
We reviewed all comments we
received from the peer reviewers for
substantive issues and clarifying
information regarding the listing of the
Andean flamingo, Chilean woodstar,
and St. Lucia forest thrush. The peer
reviewers generally concurred with our
methods and conclusions and provided
additional clarifications and suggestions
to improve the final rule. Peer reviewer
comments and information are
addressed and incorporated into the
final rule as appropriate.
Species Information and Factors
Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533),
and its implementing regulations in the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) at 50
CFR part 424, set forth the procedures
for adding species to the Federal Lists
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
and Plants. A species may be
determined to be an endangered or
threatened species due to one or more
of the five factors described in section
4(a)(1) of the Act. The five factors are:
(A) The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial,
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recreational, scientific, or educational
purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D)
the inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; and (E) other natural or
manmade factors affecting its continued
existence.
Below is a species-by-species analysis
of these five factors. The species are
considered in alphabetical order,
beginning with the Andean flamingo,
and followed by the Chilean woodstar
and the St. Lucia forest thrush.
I. Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus
andinus)
Species Description
Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) are
gregarious, long-lived birds that inhabit
saline wetlands and breed in colonies
(del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519; Caziani et
al. 2007, pp. 277). The Andean flamingo
is the largest member of the
Phoenicopteridae family in South
America, reaching an adult height of 3.5
˚
feet (ft) (110 centimeters (cm)) (Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 86). This waterbird
is native to low-, medium-, and highaltitude wetlands in the Andean regions
of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru
(BirdLife International (BLI) 2008, p. 1;
del Hoyo 1992, p. 526), where it is
locally known as ‘‘flamenco andino,’’
‘‘parina grande,’’ ‘‘pariguana,’’
‘‘pariwana,’’ and ‘‘chururu’’ (BLI 2006, p.
1; Castro and Varela 1992, p. 26;
Davison 2007, p. 2; del Hoyo 1992, p.
´
526; Saenz 2006, p. 185).
An adult Andean flamingo has a pale
yellow face and pale pink coloring
overall. Its upper plumage is brighter
pink, with a deeper pink to wine redcolored neck, breast, and wing-coverts
(feathers on the upper wing), and
prominent black tertial feathers (feathers
on the posterior portion of the wing).
The bill is pale yellow with a black tip,
and the legs and feet are yellow (BLI
2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526).
Young Andean flamingos are grayish in
color and achieve full adult plumage in
their third year (del Hoyo 1992, p. 526).
Andean flamingo is one of three
flamingo species that are endemic to the
high Andes of South America (Johnson
et al. 1958, p. 299; Johnson 1967, p. 404;
del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 508; Line 2004,
pp. 1–2; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277;
Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2). All flamingos
have pink plumage to varying degrees
(del Hoyo 1992, p. 508). The Andean
flamingo is distinguished from other
South American flamingos by its size (it
is the largest in the area), leg coloring (it
is the only flamingo with yellow legs),
and wing coloring (it has prominent
black tertial feathers that form a ‘‘V’’
when the flamingo is not in flight) (BLI
2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526).
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Taxonomy
The Andean flamingo was first
taxonomically described as
Phoenicopterus andinus
(Phoenicopteridae family), by Rodulfo
Philippi in 1854 (Philippi 1860, p. 164;
Hellmayr 1932, p. 448). In 1856,
Bonaparte split the genus
Phoenicopterus, placing the Andean
flamingo in a separate genus, as
Phoenicoparrus andinus, along with the
sympatric (species inhabiting the same
or overlapping geographical areas)
James’ flamingos (P. jamesi) (Hellmayr
and Conover 1948, pp. 273–278; Jenkin
1957, p. 405). In 1990, Sibley and
Monroe (1990, p. 311) suggested the
Andean flamingo should be returned to
the genus Phoenicopterus, based on the
close genetic relatedness among all
flamingo species (Sibley and Ahlquist
1989, as cited in Ramsen et al. 2007, p.
18). However, many contemporary
researchers maintain that the Andean
flamingo should remain within the
genus Phoenicoparrus, based on bill
morphology and the lack of a hind toe
(BLI 2008, p. 1; Caziani et al. 2007, p.
276; del Hoyo et al. 1992, pp. 508–509;
˚
Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Mascitti
and Kravetz 2002, pp. 73–83; Valqui et
al. 2000, p. 110). Therefore, we accept
the species as Phoenicoparrus andinus,
which is also consistent with the
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) species database (UNEP–
WCMC 2008b, p. 1).
Habitat and Life History
Andean flamingos are native to the
Andes Mountains, from southern Peru
and southwestern Bolivia to northern
Chile and northwestern Argentina. They
occupy shallow wetlands, collectively
called salars, which are characterized as
shallow, often saline, lakes (known
locally as ‘‘lagos’’ or ‘‘lagunas’’) with
exposed salt-flats or mudflats (Boyle et
al. 2004, pp. 563–564; Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 277; Hurlbert and Keith 1979,
pp. 328). Andean flamingos also inhabit
‘‘bofedales,’’ which are described as wet,
marshy, perennial meadowlands (de la
Fuente 2002, p. 1; Ducks Unlimited
2007c, p. 1). These wetlands are found
at various elevations, including: (1) The
high Andes, referred to as ‘‘altiplano’’
(Spanish for ‘‘high plains’’), generally
above 13,123 ft (4,000 meters (m)); (2)
the ‘‘puna’’ (Spanish for ‘‘highlands’’),
between 9,843 and 13,123 ft (3,000 and
4,000 m); and (3) the lowlands, below
9,843 ft (3,000 m) (Caziani et al. 2001,
p. 103; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 278).
Andean flamingos generally occupy
wetlands that are less than 3 ft (1 m)
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˚
deep (Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86;
˜
Mascitti and Castenera 2006, p. 331).
Most of the wetlands in which
Andean flamingos are found are
‘‘endoreic,’’ ‘‘endorheic,’’ or closed.
These terms refer to internally-draining
water networks prevalent in the Andes
that are characterized by rivers or bodies
of water that do not drain into the sea,
but either dry up or terminate in a basin
(Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103; Hurlbert and
Keith 1979, p. 328). The water levels at
these basins expand and contract
seasonally and depend in large part on
summer rains to ‘‘recharge’’ or refill
them (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, pp. 124–125; Caziani et
al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti and Caziani
1997, p. 328).
Andean flamingos are altitudinal and
opportunistic migrants (Goldfeder and
Blanco 2007, p. 190). During the
summer (December to January), Andean
flamingos generally reside in the puna
and altiplano regions of the Andes, at
elevations between 11,483 and 14,764 ft
(3,500 and 4,500 m). In the winter, they
may move to lower elevations—down to
210 ft (64 m) above sea level—along the
Peruvian coast and inland primarily to
the central plains of Argentina,
occasionally to Bolivia, and rarely to
Paraguay (Blake 1977, p. 207; BLI 2008,
pp. 1 and 6; Boyle et al. 2004, pp. 563–
564, 570–571; Bucher 1992, p. 182;
Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al.
2006. p. 17; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 277,
279, 281; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514, 519;
˚
Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Hurlbert
and Keith 1979, pp. 330; Kahl 1975, pp.
99–101; Mascitti and Bonaventura 2002,
˜
p. 360; Mascitti and Castanera 2006, p.
328; Romano et al. 2006, p. 17; Romano
et al. 2008, pp. 45–47).
They disperse widely, even while
nesting, and can travel long distances,
flying from 249 mi (400 km) to 715 mi
(1,150 km) daily (Caziani et al. 2003, p.
11; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; Conway
2000, p. 212; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–
˚
519; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85).
Their movements are unpredictable and
appear to be influenced by varying
environmental conditions affecting the
availability of wetlands (Bucher et al.
2000, p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514 and
˚
516; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85).
When climatic conditions are favorable,
breeding takes place, and when climatic
conditions are unfavorable, breeding is
abandoned, very limited, or takes place
at alternative, less-productive breeding
grounds (e.g., Bucher et al. 2000, pp.
119–120).
All flamingos were believed to be
monogamous, with a strong pairbonding tendency that may be
maintained from one breeding season to
the next (del Hoyo 1992, p. 514).
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However, studies on greater flamingos
(Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) show that
mate-switching is common and they are
only seasonally monogamous (Cezilly
and Johnson 2005, p. 545). Andean
flamingos nest at high densities, with
breeding colonies consisting of up to
thousands of pairs (del Hoyo 1992, p.
526). Andean flamingos reach sexual
maturity between 3 and 5 years of age
(Bucher 1992, p. 183). Breeding season
for the Andean flamingo occurs in the
summer, generally from December
through February (BLI 2008, p. 2; del
˚
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjeldsa and
Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Hurlbert and Keith
1979, pp. 328), although the breeding
season may begin as early as October
and continue through April (Goldfeder
and Blanco 2007, p. 190). Both sexes
share in nest-building and nesting
(Bucher 1992, p. 182). Nests are built on
the miry clay or transient islands of
shallow lakes (del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514,
516). Each nest consists of a clay
mound, up to 16 inches (in) (40 cm)
high, with a small depression on top
˚
(del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Flamingos lay
a single white egg, usually in December
or January, and incubation lasts about
28 days (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 526).
If the egg is destroyed from flooding or
predation, the pair may re-clutch (lay a
replacement egg), but only if the loss
occurs within a few days of the first egg
being laid (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516).
Chicks remain in the nest 5–12 days,
during which time both the parents feed
the chick with ‘‘milk’’ secretions formed
by glands in their upper digestive tracts
˚
(Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 513). Feeding is
shared by parents, in approximately 24hour shifts (Bucher 1992, p. 182). When
flamingo chicks leave the nest, they
`
form large nursery creches (groups) of
hundreds or thousands of birds that are
tended by a few adults (del Hoyo et al.
1992, p. 516).
Flamingo breeding habits can vary
widely from year to year. Flamingos
may breed in large numbers for 2 or
more successive years, followed by
other years in which there is no known
breeding. Not all sexually mature adults
breed every year and, even in years of
breeding, not all sexually mature adults
will participate (Bucher 1992, p. 183).
Flamingos are generally considered to
˚
have poor breeding success (Fjeldsa and
Krabbe 1990, p. 85), and Andean
flamingos, in particular, have
experienced periods of very low
breeding success over the past 20 years
(Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2) (See
Population Estimates, below). Juvenile
mortality rates during dispersal are
unknown (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 284),
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and adult survival is considered to be
˚
‘‘very high’’ (Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p.
85). Andean flamingos are long-lived,
with an average lifespan of 20 to 30
years. Some wild adults live up to 50
years (BLI 2008, p. 2; del Hoyo et al.
1992, p. 517). Recent trends in breeding
success are further discussed under
Population Estimates, below.
Andean flamingos are wading filterfeeders, often forming large feeding
flocks at wetlands alongside sympatric
flamingos, Chilean flamingos
(Phoenicopterus chilensis), and James’
flamingos (del Hoyo 1992, p. 512;
˜
Mascitti and Castanera 2006, pp. 328–
329). Andean flamingos feed principally
on diatoms (microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae) (Mascitti and Kravetz
2002, p. 78), especially those in the
genus Surirella (no common name),
which is a dominant component of
surface sediments at the bottom of many
˚
altiplano lakes in the Andes (Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Hurlbert and
Chang 1983, p. 4768).
Historical Range and Distribution
The Andean flamingo type specimen
(the specimen that was first described
by Philippi in 1854) was collected from
Salar de Atacama, in Antofagasta
Province (Chile) (Hellmayr 1932, p.
312). Salar de Atacama is, therefore,
referred to as the ‘‘type locality.’’ The
species was subsequently reported in
Argentina in 1872 (Provinces of Jujuy
´
and Tucuman) (Burmeister 1872, p. 364;
Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. 277),
Peru (Departments of Salinas and
Arequipa) in 1886 (Hellmayr 1932, p.
312; Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p.
277; Weberbauer 1911, p. 27), and
Bolivia in 1902 (Department of Oruru)
(Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. 277;
Johnson et al. 1958, p. 289).
The species’ movements and
distribution within its range were not
understood throughout much of the
20th century. Early researchers
considered the Andean flamingo to be
relatively sedentary (Jenkin 1957, p.
405; Johnson et al. 1958, pp. 297–298),
with a distribution that did not extend
below 10,000 ft (3,048 m) (Hellmayr
1932, p. 25; Johnson 1967, p. 405). Later
researchers remarked on the nomadic
nature of the species (McFarlane 1975,
p. 88) and reported lower limits to the
species’ distribution (i.e., 8,200 ft (2,500
m) (Kahl 1975; pp. 99–100)). Hurlbert
and Keith (1979, pp. 334, 336) noted a
seasonal variance in the species’
altitudinal distribution, and Bucher
(1992, p. 182) noted that migration
might take place between Chilean
breeding grounds and Argentinian
wetlands.
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Current Range and Distribution
The current range of the Andean
flamingo extends from Peru, through
Chile and Bolivia, to Argentina, in
wetlands at elevations ranging from sea
level (in southern Peru) to 14,764 ft (64
to 4,500 m) (Arengo 2009, p. 16; BLI
2008, pp. 1, 6; Bucher 1992, p. 192;
Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; del Hoyo
˚
1992, pp. 514; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990,
p. 85). In 1989, an immature Andean
flamingo—that had been banded in
Chile earlier that year—was captured in
Brazil (Sick 1993, p. 154). There were
additional sightings of the Andean
flamingo in Brazil in the 1990s
(Bornschein and Reinert 1996, pp. 807–
808). However, the species is considered
a nonbreeding ‘‘vagrant’’ in Brazil (BLI
2008, p. 5).
Its total extent of occurrence
(including sites where breeding does not
occur) is estimated as 124,711 square
miles (mi2) (323,000 square kilometers
(km2)). The estimated area in which the
species is known to breed and reside
year-round is 72,973 square miles (mi2)
(189,000 square kilometers (km2)) (BLI
2008, p. 4).
The species’ seemingly erratic
movements and ability to disperse
widely, combined with the harsh
climatic conditions and the
inaccessibility of flamingo habitat, have
made it difficult for researchers to fully
understand their seasonal movements
and breeding habits (Bucher et al. 2000,
˚
p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514; Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 85) (see also Habitat
and Life History, above). Researchers
have long considered Chilean wetlands
to be the primary breeding grounds for
the species (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119;
˚
Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4; Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Johnson et al.
1958, p. 296; Kahl 1975 p. 100),
although between 2005 and 2008,
Andean flamingos bred in significant
numbers in Bolivia (Laguna Colorada,
Laguna Khara) and smaller colonies
have been observed in Argentina
(Laguna de Vilama, Laguna Grande)
(Arengo 2009, p. 17). Researchers have
only recently confirmed that the species
is an altitudinal and opportunistic
migrant (Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p.
190). Simultaneous censuses
undertaken since 1997 confirmed that
Andean flamingos migrate altitudinally.
In the summer, most of the population
is concentrated primarily in Chile, and
to a lesser extent in Argentina and
Bolivia. In winter, the species may
converge in certain Chilean and
Peruvian wetlands (Valqui et al. 2000,
p. 111), with relatively large numbers of
birds overwintering in Bolivia and
Argentina in some years (Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 279, 281; Romano et al. 2008,
pp. 45–47). Recent banding studies
confirmed that Andean flamingos at
high-altitude wetlands move to lower
altitude lakes, where weather conditions
are less severe (Rocha and Rodriguez
2006, p. 12).
Andean flamingos occupy some
wetlands year round (where they may or
may not breed), some wetlands only
during the summer breeding season, and
other wetlands only in winter (see Table
1). Recent research established that
there is an important, complementary
link between breeding and nonbreeding
50817
wetlands frequented by Andean
flamingos (Derlindati 2008, p. 10).
Research in Argentina at highland
(breeding) and lowland (non-breeding)
sites indicated that, regardless of season,
Andean flamingos spend the majority of
their time eating (Derlindati 2008, p.
10). They will travel to different
wetlands to feed, even while nesting
(Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 277; Conway 2000, p. 212; del
Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519). Research in
Argentina at high-elevation breeding
sites and low-elevation nonbreeding
sites indicated that given the timing of
courtship in the annual cycle, lowland
sites were important in providing
foraging and courtship habitat necessary
for successful breeding at high-altitude
sites (Derlindati 2008, p. 10).
Several Andean flamingo localities in
each range country are described below
and in Table 1, organized in
alphabetical order by country and name
of wetland. This is not an exhaustive
accounting of all known wetlands
occupied by the species, but includes
sites that are frequented by the species
or are otherwise notable, such as
recently discovered breeding sites. In
Table 1, ‘‘Type’’ indicates whether the
site is known as a breeding (B) or nonbreeding (NB) wetland. In most cases,
NB indicates that the species
overwinters at the wetland. However, in
some cases, Andean flamingos occupy a
wetland year-round, but no breeding
occurs there. Habitat information was
obtained primarily from Ducks
Unlimited (2007a–d) and BirdLife
International (2008).
TABLE 1—SELECTED ANDEAN FLAMINGO NESTING AND OVERWINTERING WETLANDS IN ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND
PERU
Wetland
Department
Elevation in feet/
meters
Area in acres/
hectares
Type
Description/comments
Argentina .....
Laguna Brava ......
La Rioja .......
13,780 ft/4,200 m
1,977 ac/800 ha ...
B/NB .....
Argentina .....
Laguna de
´
Melincue.
Santa Fe .....
276–295 ft/84–90
m.
29,653 ac/12,000
ha.
NB ........
Argentina .....
Lagunas de los
Aparejos.
Catamarca ...
13,911 ft/4,240 m
343 ac/139 ha ......
B/NB .....
Argentina .....
Laguna de Mar
Chiquita.
´
Cordoba ......
210–230 ft/64–70
m.
494,211 ac/
200,000 ha.
B/NB .....
Argentina .....
jdjones on DSK8KYBLC1PROD with RULES_2
Country
Laguna de Mulas
Muertas.
La Rioja .......
13,123 ft/4,000 m
1730 ac/700 ha ....
NB ........
Argentina .....
Laguna de
Pozuelos.
Jujuy ............
11,483 ft/3,500 m
24,710 ac/10,000
ha.
B/NB .....
Argentina .....
Laguna
Guayatayoc.
Jujuy ............
12,008 ft/3,660 m
247,104 ac/
100,000 ha.
NB ........
Large lake associated with an
endoreic (closed) river basin that
includes Laguna de Mulas Muertas.
One of two lowest-elevation endoreic
wetlands
used
by
Andean
flamingos.
Shallow lagoon in a larger lagoon
system that is lacking in aquatic
vegetation.
Large, permanent, hypersaline, seasonally fluctuating lake is the lowest-elevation locality.
Located near and part of the same
endoreic river basin as Laguna
Brava.
Central lake within endoreic basin
with lower water levels and extensive mudflats in winter.
Part of large salt basin where
endoreic waters form shallow,
brackish-to-hypersaline lakes.
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TABLE 1—SELECTED ANDEAN FLAMINGO NESTING AND OVERWINTERING WETLANDS IN ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND
PERU—Continued
Country
Wetland
Department
Elevation in feet/
meters
Area in acres/
hectares
Argentina .....
Laguna Vilama .....
Jujuy ............
14,436 ft/4,400 m
Bolivia ..........
´
Lago Poopo .........
Oruro ...........
Bolivia ..........
Lago Uru Uru .......
Oruro ...........
Bolivia ..........
Laguna Colorada
Bolivia ..........
Type
Description/comments
19,768 ac/8,000
ha.
B/NB .....
12,090 ft/3,685 m
330,380 ac/
133,700 ha.
NB ........
12,126 ft/3,696 m
NB ........
´
Potosı .......... 13,944 ft/4,250 m
69,190 ac/28,000
ha.
12,948 ac/5,240
ha.
Laguna Kalina or
Busch.
´
Potosı .......... 14,862 ft/4,530 m
3,954 ac/1,600 ha
B/NB .....
Bolivia ..........
Laguna de Pastos
Grandes.
Oruro ...........
37,066 ac/15,000
ha.
B/NB .....
Bolivia ..........
Salar de Chalviri ..
´
Potosı .......... 14,396 ft/4,388 m
28,417 ac/11,500
ha.
NB ........
Bolivia ..........
Salar de Coipasa
Oruro ...........
12,112 ft/3,692 m
548,077 ac/
221,800 ha.
B/NB .....
Bolivia ..........
Laguna de
Saquewa.
Oruro ...........
13,123 ft/4000 m ..
..............................
NB ........
Chile ............
Atacama ......
13,123 ft/4,000 m
6,919 ac/2,800 ha
B/NB .....
Chile ............
Lago del Negro
Francisco.
Salar de ................
´
Ascotan ................
Antofagasta
12,211 ft/3,722 m
93,406 ac/37,800
ha.
B/NB .....
Chile ............
Salar de Atacama
Antofagasta
7,546 ft/2,300 m ...
691,895 ac/
280,000 ha.
B/NB .....
Chile ............
Salar de Coposa ..
´
Tarapaca .....
12,376 ft/3,730 m
B/NB .....
Chile ............
Salar de Huasco ..
´
Tarapaca .....
13,123 ft/4,000 m
21,003 ac/8,500
ha.
14,826 ac/6,000
ha.
Chile ............
Salar de Surire .....
´
Tarapaca .....
13,583 ft/4,140 m
Large, permanent endoreic lake,
prone to wide water fluctuations
and winter freezes.
Large, shallow saline lake in same
ancient endoreic river basin as
Lago Uru Uru.
´
Along with Lago Poopo, experiences
wide fluctuations in water level.
Hypersaline endoreic lake fed by
streams and thermal springs, with
shores that freeze at night.
Hypersaline lake associated with the
same endoreic water basin as Laguna Colorada.
Group of small, permanent saline
lakes in an ancient caldera fed by
underground sources.
Basin of many small lakes separated
by saltflats, fed by small streams
and thermal springs.
Large salt basin and shallow
hypersaline lake, receiving water
´
from Rıo Lauca.
Hypersaline lake associated with Rio
Lauca system, receives input from
external afluents and underground
waters.
Large high-altitude permanent lake
surrounded by bofedales.
High-altitude salt basin with many saline lakes on perimeter, fed by several freshwater springs.
Endoreic salt basin with fluctuating
water levels from summer storms
and snowmelt.
Endoreic salt with small lagoon that
fluctuates greatly in size.
Salt basin receiving summer rains
and fed by snow melt bogs and
bofedales.
Permanent saline lake.
Peru .............
Lago
Parinacochas.
Ayacucho ....
Peru .............
Laguna de
Loriscota.
Laguna Salinas ....
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Peru .............
15:04 Aug 16, 2010
B/NB .....
B/NB .....
10,738 ft/3,273 m
61,776 ac/25,000
ha.
16,556 ac/6,700
ha.
Puno ............
15,299 ft/4,663 m
8525 ac/3,450 ha
NB ........
Arequipa ......
14,091 ft/4,295 m
17,544 ac/7,100
ha.
NB ........
Argentina: Several wetlands in
Argentina provide year-round habitat
for the Andean flamingo (see Table 1).
The species breeds and overwinters
regularly at Laguna de Pozuelos and
Lagunas de Vilama (Caziani & Derlindati
2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 113;
Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Ducks Unlimited 2007a,
pp. 1–4). The Vilama wetlands system
(Lagunas de Vilama) is comprised of 12
lakes: Arenal, Blanca, Caiti, Catal, Cerro
Negro, Colpayoc, Guinda, Honda, Isla
Grande, Palar, Pululos, and Vilama
(Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122;
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13–15,000 ft/4–
4,500 m.
B/NB .....
Jkt 220001
Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103). During a 3year study, Andean flamingos occupied
eight of the nine lakes, but were
especially concentrated on Laguna
Vilama and Laguna Catal (Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, p. 125). Caziani et al.
2001 (p. 104) determined that the
Vilama wetland system provided a
variety of spatial and seasonal
ecological conditions on the landscape
level, such that a range of options
existed from which Andean flamingos
could select habitat at any given time
during the year. They further suggest
that similar landscape-level
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NB ........
Shallow, large, brackish endoreic lake
and marshes with exposed salt
flats in dry season.
Permanent, shallow hypersaline lake
surrounded by bofedales.
Semipermanent, shallow hypersaline
lake with freshwater springs and
bofedales on perimeter.
relationships between wetlands exist,
even when the wetlands are not located
within the same basin (Caziani et al.
2001, p. 110). The Lagunas de Vilama
wetland has harbored up to 30 percent
of Andean flamingos during the
breeding season (Caziani & Derlindati
2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13).
In recent decades, the species has
nested or overwintered in locations not
previously recorded. In January 1998,
the first account of Andean flamingos
nesting was reported at Laguna Brava
(Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119), which was
long known as an overwintering site for
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the species (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279).
Since 1998, Laguna Brava has continued
to provide isolated nesting sites (de la
Fuente 2002, p. 6). Also in January
1998, large numbers of nonbreeding
birds were reported at Laguna de Mulas
Muertas, just 4 mi (7 km) from Laguna
Brava (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120).
Researchers attribute both the large
number of breeding birds at Laguna
Brava and the large number of
nonbreeding birds at Laguna de Mulas
Muertas to unusual rainfall patterns that
year (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120). In
March 2001, chicks were observed at
Lagunas de los Aparejos (Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 279, 283), part of a lagoon
system with Laguna Azul and Laguna
Negra (BLI 2008, p. 50). Normally
known as a nesting site for the James’
flamingo (Childress 2005, p. 6), this may
now be a nesting site for the Andean
flamingo as well (BLI 2008, p. 50).
Andean flamingos overwinter at both
high- and low-elevation wetlands in
Argentina. Laguna Guayatayoc is a highelevation overwintering site for Andean
flamingos (Ducks Unlimited 2007a, pp.
1–4), where the species has sometimes
been reported in relatively large
numbers (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 116;
Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). Laguna de
Mar Chiquita is the lowest-elevation
wetland frequented by the Andean
flamingo (Bucher et al 1992, p. 119;
Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Derlindati
2008, pp. 6–7). Long known as an
overwintering site, researchers report
that a small group of Andean flamingos
(about 100 individuals) may reside there
year round (BLI 2008, p. 1; Bucher 1992,
pp. 179, 182), and breeding has recently
been reported there (Childress et al.
´
2005, p. 6). Laguna de Melincue is
another low-elevation overwintering site
for Andean flamingos (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279). Although breeding has
not been reported there (Childress et al.
2005, p. 6), the species engages in
nuptial displays vital to reproductive
success in the breeding colonies
(Derlindati 2008, p. 9). Researchers
estimated that in recent years, between
17 and 30 percent of the world
population of Andean flamingos
´
overwintered at Laguna de Melincue in
winter (Romano et al 2006a, p. 17;
Romano et al. 2008, pp. 45–47). A
recent winter monitoring carried out in
lowland wetlands of the southern Santa
´
Fe province (that include Melincue and
three other nearby wetlands) has
dramatically increased the numbers of
Andean Flamingos previously recorded
in Argentinean lowland wetlands,
reaching 61 percent of the global
population (Romano et al. 2008, pp.
45–47).
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Jkt 220001
Bolivia: There are at least 10 flamingo
nesting sites in Bolivia (Caziani et al.
2006, p. 13). Laguna Colorada is a highaltitude wetland where Andean
flamingos remain year-round and where
they have recently nested with greater
frequency (see Factor B) (BLI 2008, p. 1;
Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Davison 2007, p. 1; Ducks
Unlimited 2007b, pp. 14; Kahl 1979,
p. 100). Laguna Kalina (also known as
Laguna Calina and Laguna Busch) has
recently figured prominently as a
nesting location. Chicks were first
reported there in 1997 (Valqui et al.
2000, p. 112), and nesting has been
reported there, at small but consistent
rates, in 2004, 2005, and 2006 (Childress
et al. 2005, p. 6; Childress et al. 2006,
p. 5; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7).
Salar de Pastos Grandes is another
lake system that includes Laguna de
Pastos Grandes, Laguna Ramaditas,
˜
Laguna Hedionda, Laguna Canapa,
Laguna Cachi, Laguna Khara, Laguna
Chulluncani, and Laguna Khar Khota
(Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 13). This
wetland complex provides breeding and
non-breeding habitat.
Non-breeding year-round wetlands in
Bolivia include: Lago Uru Uru (Ducks
Unlimited 2007b, p. 5–8; Kahl 1975,
p. 100; M<lgaard et al. 1999; Rocha et
al. 2006, p. 18); Salar de Chalviri (Ducks
Unlimited 2007b, pp. 17–20; Hurlbert &
´
Keith 1979, p. 331); Lago Poopo, a
known locality since 1921 (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Hellmayr & Conover 1948,
p. 277; Johnson 1967, p. 404); and Salar
de Coipasa, a wintering site of known
importance for all three South American
flamingo species since the mid-20th
century (Johnson 1967, p. 404; Ducks
Unlimited 2007c, p. 9). These lakes are
hydrologically connected through the
´
Titicaca-Desaguadero-Poopo-Salar de
Coipasa (TDPS) basin, a large endoreic
(closed) basin shared between Peru,
Bolivia, and Chile (Jellison et al. 2004,
p. 11). Several Andean flamingo
wetlands are connected to this
hydrological basin through rivers,
´
including: Lago Poopo (Bolivia), which
is connected to Lago Titicaca (Peru)
´
through Rıo Desaguadero; Salar de
Coipasa (Bolivia), which is connected to
´
´
Lago Poopo through Rıo Laca Jahuira
River (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11); and
´
Lago Uru Uru, which is fed by Rıo
Desaguadero (Ducks Unlimited 2007b,
p. 5). In 2000, more than 50 percent of
the known population of Andean
flamingos overwintered at Lagos Uru
´
Uru and Poopo (Caziani et al. 2007,
p. 279).
Laguna Saquewa and Laguna Macaya
are also important sites for the three
flamingo species. During winter,
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50819
Andean Flamingo numbers can reach up
to 2,000.
Chile: There are at least a dozen
Andean flamingo breeding sites in Chile
(Childress et al. 2006, p. 7). Salar de
Atacama, where the Andean flamingo
type specimen was obtained in 1854
(Hellmayr 1932, p. 312; Philippi 1860,
p. 164), has been a consistent and
primary breeding ground (Bucher et al.
2000, p. 119; Childress et al. 2007a,
p. 7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4;
Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296). Several
other sites have figured consistently and
prominently over the years, including
Salar de Surire, Salar de Huasco, and
´
˚
Salar de Ascotan (Fjeldsa and Krabbe
1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296;
Kahl 1975 p. 100). Andean flamingos
were first observed at Salar de Surire in
the early 1970s (McFarlane 1975, p. 88).
The first report of breeding (observation
of chicks) there occurred in 1997
(Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112), and breeding
has continued there at increasing
numbers (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283).
´
Laguna Ascotan differs from most other
Andean flamingo wetlands, as it is fed
by 13 freshwater springs as well as
several brackish lagoons (Vilina and
´
Martınez 1998, p. 28). In addition, Salar
de Coposa has long served as breeding
and overwintering habitat for the
Andean flamingo (Caziani et al. 2007,
p. 279; Johnson 1958, p. 297; Kahl 1975
p. 100).
Salar de Atacama, Salar de Coposa,
Salar de Huasco, Salar de Negro
Francisco, and Salar de Surire also
provide year-round habitat for the
Andean flamingo (Caziani et al. 2006,
p. 13; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Ducks
Unlimited 2007c, pp. 5–8; Johnson
1958, p. 296). In 1998 and 2000,
between 3,500 and 4,500 birds
overwintered at these sites (Caziani et
al. 2007, p. 279).
Peru: Andean flamingos frequent
several wetlands in Peru (BLI 2008, pp.
5, 72, 74–75, 78; Ducks Unlimited
2007d, pp. 21, 25, 29; Jameison and
Bingham 1912, p. 14; Ricalde 2003,
p. 91). Although BirdLife International
reports breeding sites in Peru (2008,
p. 2), the Flamingo Specialist Group
reported no known nesting sites or
evidence of breeding at Peruvian
wetlands in 2005, 2006, or 2007 (M.
Valqui Munn, in litt., as cited in
Childress et al. 2005, p. 6; Arengo in
litt., as cited in Childress et al. 2006, p.
6; Arengo in litt., as cited in Childress
et al. 2007a, p. 7). The species
frequently overwinters at Laguna
Salinas, Laguna Loriscota, Laguna
Vizcachas, and Lago Parinacochas,
among other locations (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p.
21, 25, 29–30; Jameison and Bingham
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1912, p. 14). It is estimated that nearly
20 percent of the global population
overwinters in Peru (Ricalde 2003,
p. 91).
Recent Trends in Distribution: In
1997, 50 percent of the breeding
population (of breeding age) was
distributed among three sites in Chile
(Salar de Surire, Laguna Maricunga, and
Laguna Negro Francisco) and two sites
in Argentina (Pozuelos and Vilama)
(Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). In the
summer of 2005, 50 percent of the
breeding population was located in 5
separate wetlands—Negro Francisco
(Chile), Salar de Surire (Chile), Lagunas
de Vilama (Argentina), Laguna Colorada
(Bolivia), and Salar de Atacama (Chile)
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13).
Population Estimates
Between 1965 and 1968, Charles
Cordier’s estimate of the Andean
flamingo population varied by an order
of magnitude, from 50,000 to 500,000
(as cited in Johnson 1967, p. 404; as
cited in Kahl 1975, p. 100). In 1975,
Kahl (1975, p. 100) estimated the total
population to be 150,000 individuals.
This estimate was based on (1) previous
estimates; (2) the fact that the largest
number of individuals Kahl had seen in
one place (Lago Uru Uru, Bolivia) was
18,000 individuals; and (3) that, at most
sites, he observed the Andean flamingo
to be less numerous than the Chilean
flamingo and James’ flamingo. In 1986,
the population was estimated to be less
than 50,000 individuals and declining
(Johnson 2000, p. 203). However, the
accuracy of earlier population estimates
has never been confirmed. According to
Arengo (in litt. 2007, p. 2), a member of
the Altoandino Flamingo Conservation
´
Group (Grupo de Conservacion
Flamencos Altoandinos), previous
historical population estimates were
based on extrapolations of data that are
not considered to be reliable. Experts
consider the figure of between 50,000
and 100,000 individuals may have been
accurate until the mid-1980s (BLI 2008,
p. 1). Although the figure of 150,000
˚
(e.g., Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86)
was still being reported in the 1990s, an
estimate of 50,000 is considered a more
accurate figure (Arengo in litt. 2007, p.
2; BLI 2008 p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 1992,
p. 526), and experts believe that the
species underwent a severe reduction
from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s
(BLI 2008, pp. 1, 5).
The first simultaneous census of
Andean flamingos was conducted in
1997 (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 110). Using
a comprehensive sampling design and
conducting simultaneous surveys at
over 200 wetlands in Peru, Bolivia,
Chile, and Argentina, researchers
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Jkt 220001
counted: 33,918 Andean flamingos in
January 1997; 27,913 in January 1998;
14,722 in June 1998; and, 24,442 in July
2000 (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). In the
summer of 2005, a total of 31,617
Andean flamingos were counted
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). Recent
censuses estimate the global population
at around 34,000 individuals (Caziani et
al. 2006, pp. 276–287; Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 13–17).
According to Arengo (in litt. 2007, p.
2), long-term population trends have
been difficult to establish, given the
unreliability of previous population
estimates. However, given that the
global population sizes of all other
flamingo species are estimated above
100,000 individuals, experts consider
the Andean flamingo to be the rarest of
the 6 flamingo species (Arengo in litt.
2007, p. 2).
Nesting sites: In the last decade, small
groups of Andean flamingos have been
reported intermittently nesting at a
greater variety of sites, including:
Laguna Brava and Lagunas de Vilama
(Argentina) (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119;
Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Derlindati
2008, pp. 6–7); Laguna Colorada and
Laguna Kalina (Bolivia) (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Childress et al. 2005, p. 6;
Childress et al. 2006, p. 5; Childress et
al. 2007a, p. 7; Rodriguez Ramirez 2006,
as cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2);
and Salar de Punta Negra and Salar de
Huasco (Chile) (Bucher et al. 2000, p.
119; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Valqui
et al. 2000, p. 112). In recent years,
Andean flamingos have been recorded
from 25 wetlands survey units, but there
were fewer than 100 individuals at
many of these sites (Caziani et al. 2007,
p. 281). Only 12 wetlands contained
more than 100 Andean flamingos at any
one of the 4 sampling periods from 1997
to 2000, and breeding has been
consistently reported at only 2 of these
sites (Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 2–3;
Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 279–281; Valqui et al. 2000, p.
112).
Breeding success: Productivity
estimates from intensive studies of
breeding sites in Chile indicate marked
fluctuations over the past 20 years, with
periods of very low breeding success
(Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2). In 1987, a
high of around 15,000 chicks fledged,
followed by 10 years of relatively low
productivity (fewer than 800 chicks
fledged per year on average), and a
recent increase to an average of 3,000
chicks fledged since 2000 (Rodriguez
Ramirez 2006, Amado et al. 2007, both
as cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1–
3). Between 1997 and 2001, successful
breeding (based on the observation of 2–
3-month-old chicks) was documented
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only at three wetlands and, in those
wetlands, a total of only 12,801 chicks
were produced—Salar de Surire (Chile;
9,200 chicks), Salar de Atacama (Chile;
3,378 chicks), and Aparejos (Argentina;
223 chicks) (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283).
The most recent simultaneous census
data indicate that a total of 2,338 chicks
survived at breeding colonies located in
Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile during the
2006–2007 breeding season (December
to February) (Childress et al. 2007a, p.
7). In Argentina, eight sites were
surveyed, six of which are known
Andean flamingo breeding sites. Of
these, breeding was attempted at one
site, but was unsuccessful. No breeding
was reported in Peru during the 2006–
2007 breeding season. Of 4 sites
surveyed in Bolivia, 3 of which are
known Andean flamingo nesting
grounds, breeding occurred at 2 sites
(Laguna Colorada and Kalina) producing
total of 1,800 chicks. In Chile, breeding
was attempted at four sites in Salar de
Atacama. A total of 2,900 pairs of
Andean flamingos laid eggs but only
538 chicks survived.
Conservation Status
The Andean flamingo is the rarest of
six flamingo species worldwide (family
Phoenicopteridae). The IUCN considers
the Andean flamingo to be ‘‘Vulnerable,’’
because (1) it has undergone a rapid
population decline, (2) it is exposed to
ongoing exploitation and declines in
habitat quality, (3) and, although
exploitation may decrease, the longevity
and slow breeding of flamingos suggest
that the legacy of past threats may
persist through generations to come (BLI
2008, p. 1). Long-lived species with
slow rates of reproduction and ongoing
poor breeding success, such as that
being experienced by the Andean
flamingo, can quickly decline towards
extinction when reproduction does not
keep pace with mortality (BLI 2008, p.
2; Bucher 1992, p. 183; del Hoyo et al.
1992, p. 517) (see Population Estimates,
above).
Summary of Factors Affecting the
Andean Flamingo
A. The Present or Threatened
Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or
Range
Andean flamingos occupy shallow,
saline wetlands in the lowland, puna,
and altoandino regions of the Andes
(see Table 1) (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 6; Bucher
1992, p. 192; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119;
Caziani et al. 2007; del Hoyo 1992, pp.
˚
514; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85).
Andean flamingos are altitudinal
migrants and alternate between
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wetlands based largely on
environmental conditions and
especially the availability of water
(Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et al. 2000,
˚
p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514; Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Goldfeder and
Blanco 2007, p. 190; Hurlbert and Keith
1979, pp. 334, 336; Rocha and
Rodriguez 2006, p. 12). During the
summer breeding season (December to
January), Andean flamingos occupy
high-elevation wetlands in Chile,
Argentina, and Bolivia, and less
frequently, Peru. During the winter, they
may stay at the high-elevation wetlands,
or move to lower elevations in
Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru (Blake
1977, p. 207; BLI 2008, pp. 1 and 6;
Boyle et al. 2004, pp. 563–564, 570–571;
Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et al. 2000,
p. 119; Caziani et al. 2006. p. 17; Caziani
et al. 2007, pp. 277, 279, 281; del Hoyo
˚
1992, p. 514, 519; Fjeldsa and Krabbe
1990, p. 85; Hurlbert and Keith 1979,
pp. 330; Kahl 1975, pp. 99–101; Mascitti
and Bonaventura 2002, p. 360; Mascitti
˜
and Castanera 2006, p. 328).
The wetlands occupied by Andean
flamingos are utilized on a landscape
level (Derlindati 2008, p. 10). Andean
flamingos prefer water that is less than
˚
3 ft (1m) deep (Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990,
˜
p. 86; Mascitti and Castenera 2006, p.
331) and rely on the variety of habitat
options at wetland complexes
throughout the species’ range to select
optimal nesting and feeding sites.
Beginning in 2002, researchers
conducted a multi-year Andean
flamingo dispersal study, to determine
overwintering sites and spatial and
temporal movements (Caziani et al.
2003, p. 11; Johnson and Arengo 2004,
pp. 9, 15). Andean flamingos in
Argentina were tracked using satellite
transmitters, and results were highly
variable. One bird stayed at the
origination site (the actual location of
which was undisclosed), and another
bird traveled 715 mi (1,150 km) over a
4-day period, using more than four sites
in the process (Caziani et al. 2003, p.
11). The habitats visited included salar
lakes, rivers and flooded areas.
Flamingos were more mobile during
summer to autumn (January–May),
moving between sites often, and less
mobile in winter. The birds in this study
overwintered at Laguna de Mar Chiquita
´
(Argentina), Lago Poopo (Bolivia), and
Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Caziani et al.
2003, p. 11).
Between 1997 and 2001, 98 percent of
Andean flamingo chicks were produced
in two Chilean wetlands—Surire (9,200
chicks) and Atacama (3,378 chicks)
(Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283). In the
2006–2007 breeding season, 75 percent
of the surviving chicks were produced
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at Laguna Kalina and Laguna Colorada
(1,800 chicks) (Bolivia), and the other 25
percent at Salar de Atacama (538 chicks)
(Chile). Sites where breeding does not
occur serve as important staging areas
for pre-reproduction mating displays
and as feeding locations for nonbreeding flamingos and even breeding
flamingos at nearby sites (Derlindati
2008, p. 10). Andean flamingos travel to
different wetlands to feed, even while
nesting (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani et
al. 2007, p. 277; Conway 2000, p. 212;
del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519).
The Andean region where the Andean
flamingo occurs is characterized by an
extensive series of endoreic (closed)
water systems that drain internally, that
are recharged primarily by summer
rains, that contract seasonally, and that
may occasionally dry out completely
(see Factor E) (Bucher 1992, p. 182;
Caziani and Derlindati 2000, pp. 124–
125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti
and Caziani 1997, p. 328).
Mineral extraction, water
contamination, water extraction, and
water diversion from mining,
agriculture, grazing, urban development,
and increasing tourism are ongoing
activities that negatively impact wetland
habitats that support Andean flamingos
throughout the species’ range (Arengo in
litt. 2007, p. 2; Childress et al. 2007a, p.
5; Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193).
Mineral extraction: There are ongoing
mining operations to extract salt, borax,
ulexite, sulphur, sodium carbonate,
lithium, and several other minerals at
many of the wetlands occupied by the
Andean flamingo. Mineral extraction
and prospecting are ongoing at these
wetlands, including: Salars de Atacama
´
and Surire (Chile) (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996a, p. 9; Rundel
and Palma 2000, pp. 270–271)—the two
breeding sites that accounted for 98
percent of the chick production during
the period 1997–2001 (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 283)—and Lago Uru Uru
(Bolivia) (Soto 1996, p. 7; Ugarte-Nunez
and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p.
135)—the site that had the largest
number of Andean flamingos ever
recorded in one wetland (Kahl 1975, p.
100). Prospecting and digging for
minerals and underground water—
involving road building, which makes it
possible for people to reach places that
were formerly inaccessible—are ongoing
´
at Salar Punta Negra (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11).
Argentinean wetlands—including
Laguna Brava, Purulla, Grande, Baya,
Diamante (these last three part of the
Galan Complex), Laguna Pozuelos, and
Lagunas de Vilama, where Andean
flamingos breed and live year-round—
are also under pressure to allow mining
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50821
in these areas (BLI 2008, p. 553; Caziani
et al. 2001, p. 106; de la Fuente 2002,
p. 8; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, p. 4;
Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193).
In Bolivia, there are proposals to
exploit lithium, potassium, and borium
from Salar de Coipasa (Ducks Unlimited
2007b, p. 11) and Pastos Grandes (New
World Resource Corp 2008, p. 1)—both
known breeding and overwintering sites
for the Andean flamingo. Bolivia
contains an estimated 50 percent of the
world’s supply of the lithium that is
used to make batteries for portable
electronic equipment. The largest
known lithium deposit in the world is
located in the Bolivian altiplano—the
Pastos Grandes concession (New World
Resource Corp 2008, p. 2). Lithium can
be extracted directly from the saline
water in the alitplano salars; this water
is referred to by the mining industry as
‘‘brine.’’ The brine is pumped through a
series of evaporation ponds to
concentrate the lithium (New World
Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). Obtaining
lithium from brine is considered more
cost-effective in the mining industry
than the other alternative, extracting
lithium from hard rock (New World
Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). Nearly all the
world’s supply of brine-derived lithium
comes from the Chilean and
Argentinean altiplanos (New World
Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). In Peru,
Laguna Loriscota and Laguna Vizcachas
are being prospected to extract or divert
water to feed mining operations. These
areas are currently being reviewed as
Important Bird Areas (Arengo 2009, p.
34).
Intensive exploitation of natural
resources has degraded the soil and
ecology of the region, resulting in
extensive erosion, river sedimentation,
soil salinization, silting up of lakes, and
water imbalances in watersheds that
contribute to extreme fluctuations in
water flows (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 14).
In the past, Andean flamingos have
abandoned breeding sites undergoing
´
alteration from mining. Laguna Ascotan
was once considered a breeding site for
the species (Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296;
Kahl 1975 p. 100). The birds abandoned
the site in the mid-20th century, which
Johnson (1958, p. 296) attributed to the
resumption of borax extraction. Today,
Andean flamingos continue to feed at
´
the site (Vilina and Martınez 1998, p.
28), but there are no reports of nesting.
Water Contamination: Water
resources at many salars have been
contaminated, largely as the result of
chemical pollution produced by the
mining and metallurgical industries.
The waters of the Titicaca-Desaguadero´
Poopo-Salar de Coipasa (TDPS)
hydrological system have been polluted
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by mining and metal foundry activities
(Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11; Ricalde 2003,
p. 91). This water system includes the
important Bolivian overwintering sites,
´
Lagos Poopo and Uru Uru—where more
than 50 percent of the known
population of Andean flamingos
overwintered in 2000 (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279). The area has been mined
for silver, lead, zinc, copper limestone,
antimony, iron, gold, tin, and uranium
´
(Rocha 2002, p. 10). Lago Poopo, Lago
´
Uru Uru, and the lower Rıo Desaguadero
have concentrations of heavy metals
above the limits permitted for human
consumption (Apaza et al. 1996,
Organization of American States/United
Nations Environment Programme (OAS/
UNEP) and the Bi-national Authority of
Lago Titicaca (Autoridad Nacional del
Lago Titicaca (ALT)) 1999; Van
Ryckeghem 1997—as cited in Rocha
´
2002, p. 10). Because Lago Poopo is
located at the terminal end of the
endoreic (closed) TDPS drainage
system, pollutants are more likely to
concentrate there (Jellison et al. 2004, p.
120; Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 3) and the
lake has been contaminated by mining
activities for many years (Adamek et al.
1998). Mine pollution has led to lake
water lead concentrations that are 300
´
times higher in Lago Poopo than the
average concentrations detected in other
lakes in the world, and fish in the lake
test positive for heavy metal residues
(Cardoza et al. 2004, as cited in Jellison
et al. 2004, p. 120). Water
´
contamination in Lago Poopo was
further exacerbated in the year 2000,
when 39,000 barrels of crude oil spilled
in the lake. The native community Uru
Morato, which has lived along the lake
for 5,000 years, reported that the
flamingoes did not lay eggs there that
year ‘‘for the first time in thousands of
years’’ (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 13).
Tourism and increasing human
population to support the mining
industry has destroyed habitat and
further contaminated water supplies.
Ecotourism is prevalent at many
wetlands inhabited by the Andean
flamingo in Argentina, most of which
are exceptional sites for viewing
biodiversity and wildlife, including
Laguna de Mar Chiquita (Ducks
Unlimited 2007a, p. 22); Laguna Brava,
where tourism includes the use of offroad vehicles (BLI 2008, p. 40); and
Lagunas de Vilama (Caziani et al. 2001,
p. 106). Increasing amounts of pollution
from surrounding towns that support
ecotourism and the mining industry
wash into wetlands during the rainy
season and are carried into the lake by
wind. Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray 2000 (p. 139) noted an
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absence of flamingos in areas where
refuse enters the Laguna Salinas (Peru).
Inadequate sewage systems at growing
urban centers pollute the salars (Jellison
et al. 2004, p. 11). Pollution of the water
in the TDPS system is problematic
where towns are concentrated on the
shores of the lakes (Ronteltap et al.
2005, p. 5). As of 2004, the TDPS water
´
system, of which Lagos Poopo and Uru
Uru are a part, supported a population
of nearly 3 million people (Jellison et al.
2004, p. 14). At Lake Titicaca,
wastewater is causing eutrophication—
whereby excessive nutrients stimulate
excessive plant growth, reducing the
dissolved oxygen in the water as the
plants decompose, causing other
organisms to die—over approximately
3,954 acres (ac) (1,600 hectares (ha)) in
the Puno Bay, and in another portion of
the lake, leakage from former oil wells
continues to degrade wildlife habitat
(INRENA 1996, p. 9). The southern
islands of Lake Titicaca are also being
polluted by medium sized rivers loaded
with wastewater from the cities of La
Paz and El Alto (with more than 100,000
inhabitants), one of the fastest growing
cities of South America, affecting some
of the richest areas in the lake for
fishing and birdlife (Arengo 2009, p.37).
Sewage from the city of Oruro and the
neighboring towns of Challapata, Huari,
´
´
and Poopo empties into Lagos Poopo
and Uru Uru, causing organic and
bacteriological pollution (Ducks
Unlimited 2007b, p. 7; Liberman et al.
1991, OAS/UNEP and ALT 1999—as
cited in Rocha 2002, p. 10).
In addition, illegal dumping of
agrochemicals has severely impacted
wetlands and the species that depend
on them. In 2000, at Mar Chiquita
(Argentina), Bucher reported that 30
tons of Lindane, an insecticide, was
illegally dumped at the northern end of
the lake, jeopardizing the entire closed
lake system (Johnson and Arengo 2001,
p. 38). Industrial pollutants and
pesticides have caused large-scale dieoff of flamingos. Childress et al. (2007b,
p. 30) reported that tens of thousands of
lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor)
were killed in July 2004 by industrial
heavy metals and pesticides at feeding
lakes in Kenya and Tanzania. A massive
bird die-off of unspecified species of
birds at Miramar in February 2004
´
(located in Cordoba, where Laguna de
Mar Chiquita is located) may have been
caused by the dumping of excess
agrochemicals into the water, which
penetrated the soil (BLI 2008, pp. 36–
37).
Given that pollutants and pesticides
have been known to cause die-offs of
other species of flamingos and other
bird species, it is likely that such
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contamination could have lethal effects
on Andean flamingos. For instance,
although in 1997 Laguna de Pozuelos
was among 5 wetlands that harbored 50
percent of the breeding population of
Andean flamingos, the number of
Andean flamingos on Laguna de
Pozuelos has diminished greatly since
1993 (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p.
122). Pollution from mining wastes and
erosion due to overgrazing, combined
with desiccation of the lake (see Factor
E), is negatively affecting the wetland at
Laguna de Pozuelos (Argentina), where
Andean flamingos breed and reside
year-round (Laredo 1990, as cited in
Adminstration de Parques Nacionales
1994, p. 2). In the 2006–2007 breeding
season, no breeding was detected at this
lake (Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7).
Water Extraction and Diversion:
Water is extracted from wetlands for use
by the mining industry, to facilitate
lakebed resource exploitation, and to
meet increasing human demand. Mining
companies hold water concessions at
´
Laguna Negra (Chile) (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11).
Water extraction is an intrinsic part of
lithium mining in Argentina, Bolivia,
and Chile (New World Resource Corp
2008, p. 4) (see Mineral Extraction).
Underground water has been pumped
from Salar de Punta Negra (Chile) for
use in a large copper mining operation
(Line 2004, p. 4). In the past decade,
Andean flamingos have bred
intermittently at Salar de Punta Negra
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279, 283; Johnson et al. 1958,
p. 296; Kahl 1975, p. 100). The shallow
wetlands preferred by Andean
flamingos are subject to high rates of
evapotranspiration (Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, p. 122), and water
extraction hastens desiccation of these
wetlands. In these arid closed-basin
systems, groundwater extraction is
unsustainable (Messerli et al. 1997, p.
233; Research and Resources for
Sustainable Development (Recursos e
´
Investigacion para el Desarrollo
Sustentable (RIDES)) 2005, p. 14).
Wetland hydrology has also been
affected by road construction. For
example, in Reserva Laguna Brava in
Argentina, an international road that
crosses the reserve is being paved. This
project not only affects the wetland
directly because of its proximity to
wetlands and flamingo nesting sites, but
construction activities have diverted
water flows from streams, cutting off
their flow into the wetland (Arengo
2009, p. 38–39).
Wetlands have been drained to
facilitate excavation on the lakebed
surface (Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray 2000, p. 135). Excavation can
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drastically alter the water levels of these
shallow lakes, creating areas that are
unsuitable for foraging and nesting and
allowing human access to areas that
´
were once inaccessible (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996c, p. 11).
Furthermore, there have been reports of
flamingos dying when they became
stuck in the mud brought up from the
bottom of the lake by mining operations
(Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray 2000, p. 137). Laguna
Vizcachas (Moquegua) is a critical site
for Andean Flamingos in Peru that is
seriously threatened by water
translocation for mining (Arengo 2009,
p. 39).
Urbanization and tourism have
intensified groundwater use (Jellison et
al. 2004, p. 11), as hotels and restaurants
have been established in the villages
and towns surrounding the salars and
lagunas (RIDES 2005, p. 21). An influx
of tourists at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia)
has resulted in noticeably increased
water consumption (Rocha and
Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8). At Salar de
Atacama, the maximum volume
available for extraction from the basin is
estimated by the average annual
recharge rate of 177 cubic feet per
second (ft3/s) (5 cubic meters per second
(m3/s)), yet the rights to 219 ft3/s (6.2
m3/s) of water have been allocated
(RIDES 2005, pp. 15–16). The number of
people visiting remote Salar de Surire
(Chile), a primary Andean flamingo
breeding site, was under 1,000 as of
1995, and is increasing (Soto and
Silvestre 1996, p. 7). Recent estimates
indicate that over 50,000 people visit
Salar de Atacama (Chile) and
surrounding areas each year. Based on
the recharge estimates, continued
increases in water use levels
commensurate with increasing tourism
would not be sustainable (RIDES 2005,
p. 21).
The gradual loss of water from the
basin reduces the surface area of the
lake and the total amount of habitat
available to the Andean flamingo.
Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray (2000, p. 135) found that the
number of flamingos at Laguna Salinas
(Peru) was strongly correlated to the
proportion of the lake covered with
water (1997: r2 = 0.73; 1998: r2 = 0.72),
indicating that loss of surface area
influences flamingo abundance. Lago
Parinacochas (Peru), long known as an
important overwintering site for Andean
flamingos, is being drained as part of a
water development project in Peru
(Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 31). The
TDPS in Bolivia and Peru, which Lagos
´
Poopo and Uru Uru belong to, provides
drinking water and cleaning water,
transportation, industry and irrigation—
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in addition to providing habitat for flora
and fauna (Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 5).
The extraction of water for human
consumption has exacerbated drought
conditions throughout Andean flamingo
habitat since the early 1990s (see Factor
E) (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, pp.
124–125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110;
Mascitti and Caziani 1997, p. 328). In
Chile, where Andean flamingo breeding
colonies are found and where mineral
and hydrocarbon exploration and
exploitation have increased in the last
two decades, both the number of
successful breeding colonies and the
total production of chicks of Andean
flamingos have declined since the 1980s
´
(Parada 1992, Rodrıguez and Contreras
1998—as cited in Caziani et al. 2007,
p. 284). Of 2,900 pairs of Andean
flamingos that attempted to breed in
Chilean wetlands in the 2006–2007
season, only 538 chicks were produced
(Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7).
Water from salars has been diverted to
´
support agriculture. Rıo Lauca, which
feeds Salar de Coipasa (Bolivia), has
been diverted near its source in Chile
for irrigation purposes (Ducks
Unlimited 2007c, pp. 9–11). This has
resulted in a considerable reduction in
the flow of water into Salar de Coipasa
and is contributing to the desiccation of
the Salar (Ducks Unlimited 2007b,
p. 11).
´
Rıo Desaguadero is a 230-mi-long (370
km) river that once flowed from Lago
´
Titicaca to Lago Poopo but recently
changed direction and now flows into
Lago Uru Uru (Ducks Unlimited 2007b,
p. 5). This is attributed to water level
reductions caused by an ongoing
drought since the early 1990s (see
Factor E) and by diversion for irrigation
´
(Jellison et al. 2004, p. 14). In 2004, Rıo
´
Mauri, a major tributary of the Rıo
Desaguadero, was diverted to Peru
(Armando et al. 2004, as cited in Jellison
et al. 2004, p. 14). These water shortages
exacerbate the contamination and
´
extraction problems for Lagos Poopo
and Uru Uru, mentioned above.
Research has shown that drastic water
level changes can significantly alter the
seasonal altitudinal movements of the
Andean flamingo (Mascitti and Caziani
1997, pp. 324–326). In January 1996,
Caziani & Derlindati (2000, p. 124)
reported that a colony of unidentified
flamingo nests at Lagunas Vilama,
where Andean and James’ flamingo are
known to breed, were found on dry
land—probably due to an unexpected
retraction of the lake—leaving 1,500
abandoned nests, some of which had
eggs from that season.
Increased urbanization and mining
have increased infrastructure
development. At Lagunas Brava and
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50823
Mulas Muertas (breeding and
overwintering sites, respectively), in
Argentina, an international road to
connect Argentina with Chile has been
under construction. This road passes
near the shores of Lagunas Brava and
Mulas Muertas and through the
bofedales that feed the two lakes,
decreasing the available area suitable for
Andean flamingo nesting and foraging
and disrupting hydrological recharge
system by altering the wet meadows that
feed the two lakes (de la Fuente 2002,
p. 8). At Laguna Salinas (Peru), which
provides habitat for all three Andean
flamingo species (Ducks Unlimited
2007d, p. 26), a mining road bisects the
lake and construction excavations have
reduced flamingo habitat availability
(Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray 2000, pp. 137–138). Increased
road construction to support mining and
tourism also facilitates predator access
´
to nesting grounds (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 12) (Factor
C).
Agriculture and Grazing: Lowland
wetlands that serve as important
overwintering sites for the Andean
flamingo are subject to agricultural
pressures (Derlindati 2008, pp. 1, 7).
´
Laguna Melincue (Argentina), for
instance, lies in the heart of Argentina’s
agricultural zone (Romano et al. 2006a,
p. 17; Romano et al. 2006b, pp. 16–20).
The forested lands are being cleared,
and pastures have been and continue to
be planted with cash crops in the areas
surrounding Mar Chiquita (Argentina)
(BLI 2008, p. 36). Damming of wetlands
for agriculture has modified important
flamingo areas in southern Peru, such as
Lagunillas (Puno) and Laguna Suches
(Tacna) (D. Ricalde, in litt., as cited in
Arengo 2009, p. 80).
Cattle grazing occurs adjacent to
Andean flamingo habitat in Argentina,
where the species breeds and
overwinters, including Laguna Brava (de
la Fuente 2002, p. 8) and Laguna
Pozuelos (Adminstration de Parques
Nacionales 1994, p. 1). At Laguna Brava,
ranching activities are considered small
scale (comprising 300 heads of cattle),
in part because the area surrounding the
lake is uninhabited (de la Fuente 2002,
p. 8). At Laguna Pozuelos, grazing has
resulted in severe soil erosion,
especially along the shore, and
increased siltation of the lake
´
(Adminstracion de Parques Nacionales
1994, p. 1; Ducks Unlimited 2007a,
p. 4). In Bolivia, livestock management
(llamas and alpacas) continues to be a
problem in the bofedales surrounding
Laguna Colorada (Ducks Unlimited
2007b, p. 14; Flores 2004, pp. 25–26).
These activities have contributed to
the alteration and degradation of vital
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Andean flamingo habitat. Long-lived
species with slow rates of reproduction,
such as the Andean flamingo, can
appear to have robust populations, but
can quickly decline towards extinction
if reproduction does not keep pace with
mortality (BLI 2008, p. 2; Bucher 1992,
p. 183; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 517).
Andean flamingos have temporally
sporadic and spatially concentrated
breeding patterns, and their breeding
success and recruitment are low
(Caziani et al. 2007; Childress et al.
2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7;
Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). Successful
reproduction is spatially concentrated
in just a few wetlands (Childress et al.
2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7;
Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7; Valqui et al.
2000, p. 112). In the case of Andean
flamingos, Conway (W. Conway, as
cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112)
suggests that a stable population can be
maintained if the species’ breeding
success is good every 5–10 years. Recent
productivity estimates indicate that the
species has experienced very low
breeding success over prolonged periods
(Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2; Amado et al.
2007, Rodriguez Ramirez 2006—as cited
in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1–3). An
examination of the species’ nesting sites
and breeding success (see Population
Estimates, above) indicates that, despite
an increased number of nesting sites,
the species’ breeding success remains
low (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2; Caziani
et al. 2007; Childress et al. 2005, p. 7;
Childress et al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et
al. 2007a, p. 7). Valqui et al. 2000 (pp.
111–112) postulated that reproduction
in the Andean flamingo, a species
which prefers to nest at high densities
and once nested in huge colonies at
˚
Salar de Atacama (Fjeldsa and Krabbe
1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296;
Kahl 1975, p. 100), is being inhibited by
the more dispersed nature of the
population and occupation of smaller
lakes.
Summary of Factor A
Salar habitat throughout the Andean
flamingo’s range has been and continues
to be altered as a result of natural
resource exploitation. Andean flamingos
require a variety of available habitats
over large areas in order to find optimal
foraging and nesting sites, given
unpredictable seasonal fluctuations.
Mining has resulted in direct loss of
habitat due to excavations of lakebeds,
has increased water extraction, and has
caused water pollution. Wetlands
throughout Andean flamingo habitat
have been drastically altered by water
extraction for mining, agriculture, and
human consumption. Flamingos are
sensitive to fluctuating water levels, and
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intentional diversion of water from
these endoreic (closed) wetlands
exacerbates natural seasonal
fluctuations and reduces habitat
options. Wetlands are contaminated
from mining spoils, sewage, and
agriculture pollution. Wetland
complexes occupied by Andean
flamingos that are hydrologically
connected become affected by
pollutants and by diminished water
levels on a landscape level. Resource
extraction and water contamination
have had and continue to have
significant impacts on the water quality
and the availability of wetlands that are
critical to the lifecycle of the Andean
flamingo. Andean flamingo breeding
patterns are temporally sporadic,
successful reproduction is spatially
concentrated, and their breeding success
and recruitment are low. Continued and
pervasive habitat destruction
throughout the species’ range in recent
decades coincides with the species’
drastic population reduction, as noted
by experts (See Population Estimates,
above). The negative impacts of habitat
destruction on Andean flamingos on the
reduction of the species’ range and
population numbers are intensified by
an ongoing drought (Factor E). Lowered
water levels could lead to disease
outbreaks and can increase the
flamingo’s susceptibility to predation
(Factor C). Therefore, we find that
destruction and modification of habitat
are threats to the continued existence of
the Andean flamingo throughout its
range.
B. Overutilization for Commercial,
Recreational, Scientific, or Educational
Purposes
Hunting for local consumption:
Andean flamingos are hunted
throughout most of their range for use
as food or medicine and in rituals.
Johnson (1967, p. 405) described
flamingo hunting activities by the
´
Montaro Indians at Lago Poopo (Bolivia)
and by the Chipayas at Laguna Coipasa
(Bolivia), who hunted the species for
food and for its feathers, which were
sold as dance ornaments. In the late
summer, the Chipayas also rounded up
groups of young flamingos and
slaughtered them for their fat, which
was boiled down and sold as a remedy
for tuberculosis (Johnson 1967, p. 405).
Flamingo hunting continues today
throughout much of the species’ range
(Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). Quantities
of wild birds, including flamingos, are
still sold in the markets in Argentina,
´
Bolivia, and Chile (Barbaran 2004, p. 6;
´
Saenz 2006, p. 103). In 2006, birds sold
for between 25–50 Bolivianos (Bs) ($3–
PO 00000
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´
6 U.S. Dollars (US$)) (Saenz 2006, p.
89).
On the Argentinean (Departments of
Salta and Jujuy)/Bolivian border
´
(Potosı)—where several Andean
flamingo wetlands are found, including
Laguna Pozuelos (Argentina), Laguna
Colorada, and Salar de Chalviri (both in
Bolivia) —locals use flamingo feathers
as medicinal incense and for costumes;
they eat flamingo meat and use the fat
´
for medicine (Barbaran 2004, p. 11).
Hunting is also ongoing at Lagunas de
Vilama (Argentina), where the species
overwinters (BLI 2008, p. 553).
At Salar de Atacama (an Andean
flamingo breeding site in Chile),
flamingos are hunted for their feathers
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996a,
pp. 8–9). Flamingos are used in local
rituals associated with rain, birth, death,
and illnesses by indigenous cultures
that have long inhabited the Salar de
Atacama region (Castro and Varela 1992,
p. 22).
At Laguna Salinas (an overwintering
site in Peru), hunters have killed
flamingos for target practice or just ‘‘to
get a close look at one’’ (Ugarte-Nunez
and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137).
Increased road construction to support
mining and tourism (Factor A) also
facilitates hunting access to nesting
´
grounds (Corporacion Nacional Forestal
1996a, p. 12). At Lago Titicaca (Peru),
localized hunting may occur on the
islands (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 27).
Excessive hunting of ducks and coots is
also a problem at Lago Parinacochas (an
overwintering site in Peru) (Ducks
Unlimited 2007d, p. 23), where
occasionally flamingos are also hunted
(Arengo 2009, p.46). Hunting pressure
on flamingos has been described as
‘‘intense’’ at Negro Francisco (Chile) and
poaching is a problem at Mar Chiquita
(Argentina); both are Andean flamingo
breeding grounds (Bucher 1992, p. 183;
´
Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996c, p.
11; Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193).
Indiscriminant hunting of Andean
´
flamingos continues at Lago Poopo (an
Andean flamingo overwintering site in
Bolivia) (Rocha 2002, p. 10). Around
´
Lagos Poopo and Uru Uru, flamingos are
still trapped using traditional
techniques—a slip-knot rope strung
´
across the shores of the lake (Saenz
2006, pp. 88–89). Locals, such as the
´
Urus, who live near Lagos Poopo and
Uru Uru, prefer Andean flamingos
above all other waterfowl, presumably
´
for their fat content (Saenz 2006, p.
185). Flamingo blood might be used
medicinally and feathers for adornment
´
(Saenz 2006, pp. 88–89). Locals at Lagos
´
Poopo and Uru Uru hunt flamingos to
sell to miners, who make oil from the
bird to cure tuberculosis (Morrison
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1975, p. 81). One trapper noted that
‘‘long ago’’ it was possible to trap up to
´
15 flamingos per day at Lago Poopo, but
´
that this was no longer the case (Saenz
2006, p. 89).
Direct removal through hunting of
Andean flamingo juveniles and adults
has immediate and direct consequences
on the already small size of the Andean
flamingo population. The Andean
flamingo experienced a severe
population reduction since the 1980s
(BLI 2008, pp. 1, 5), with the number of
birds decreasing from 50,000 to 100,000
individuals (BLI 2008, p. 1) to the
current estimate of 34,000 (Caziani et al.
2006, pp. 276–287; Caziani et al. 2007,
pp. 13–17). Hunting further reduces the
number of individuals. All flamingos
are believed to be monogamous, with a
strong pair-bonding tendency that may
be maintained from one breeding season
to the next (del Hoyo 1992, p. 514).
Hunting can destroy pair bonds and
disrupt mating from one season to the
next. Because not all sexually mature
adults breed every year and, even in
years of breeding, not all sexually
mature adults will participate (Bucher
1992, p. 183), removal of those adults
that are nesting greatly reduced their
˚
already poor breeding success (Fjeldsa
and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Andean
flamingos are long-lived, with slow rates
of reproduction and poor breeding
success (BLI 2008, p. 2; Bucher 1992, p.
183; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 517). Stable
populations can be maintained only if
the species’ breeding success is good
every 5–10 years (William Conway,
Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx,
New York, as cited in Valqui et al. 2000,
p. 112). Removal of juveniles from the
population contributes to the already
low rate of chick production (as further
discussed under Egg Collection, below).
Experts believe that ongoing
exploitation, coupled with habitat
decline, and the species’ rapid
population decline and slow breeding
render this species vulnerable to
extinction in the wild (BLI 2008, p. 1).
Finally, given the species’ sensitivity to
human disturbance (see Factor E),
Andean flamingos are negatively
affected by disturbance from huntingrelated activities, even when they are
not directly targeted (CONAF, Region II,
as cited in Instituto Nacional de
Recursos Naturales (INRENA) 1996, p.
11; de la Fuente 2002, p. 8; Valqui et al.
2000, p. 112).
Hunting for international trade: In
1975, the Andean flamingo was listed in
Appendix II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC
2008b, p. 1). Appendix II includes
species that are not necessarily
threatened with extinction, but may
become so unless trade is subject to
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strict regulation to avoid utilization
incompatible with the species’ survival.
International trade in specimens of
Appendix-II species is authorized
through permits or certificates under
certain circumstances, including
verification that trade will not be
detrimental to the survival of the
species in the wild and that specimens
in trade were legally acquired (UNEP–
WCMC 2008a, p. 1). For information on
how CITES functions to regulate trade,
see Factor D.
Bucher (1992, p. 183) described a
smuggling operation that involved trade
in live Andean flamingos with birds
captured at Laguna de Mar Chiquita (a
breeding site in Argentina) and
transported out of the country as
captive-bred specimens (specimens that
were not taken out of the wild) with
forged CITES documents. Based on
CITES documentation, trade records
indicate that a total of 77 Andean
flamingo specimens have been traded
internationally since the species was
listed in 1975 (United Nations
Environment Programme-World
Conservation Monitoring Centre
(UNEP–WCMC) 2008c, pp. 1–2). Thirtysix specimens were traded as nonliving
specimens—all were exchanged for
scientific purposes and involved trade
with Chile and Argentina—3 specimens
from Chile (in 1985) and 25 specimens
from Argentina (in 2004); 1 shipment of
250 grams of specimens from Chile
(possibly blood samples, in 1997); 1
body (probably a museum specimen, in
1989); and 2 feathers (which appear to
be the same specimen—imported to the
U.S. from Chile in 2000 and returned to
Chile in 2001) (UNEP–WCMC 2008c,
pp. 1–2).
Forty-one of the 77 specimens were
live shipments. Eighteen of the
specimens originated from one Andean
flamingo range country (Bolivia) and
were exported in three shipments—in
1977, 1978, and 1981. Sixteen of the
birds were traded for scientific
purposes; trade for scientific purposes
generally indicates a transaction
involving a zoo, where primary research
on captive breeding is undertaken.
There is no indication as to the origin
of the remaining 23 live specimens (i.e.,
the country from which the specimens
originated), therefore, we are unable to
determine unequivocally whether live
specimens were exported from
Argentina consistent with the
requirements of CITES. Of these 23,
only 3 specimens were traded for
commercial purposes: In 1979, when
France exported a single live individual
to Great Britain; in 1980, when the
United States exported 4 live
individuals to Great Britain; and, in
PO 00000
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1982, when Great Britain exported 27
birds to Germany. There has been no
trade in live specimens since 1982
(UNEP–WCMC 2008c, pp. 1–2).
Since 1997, the Andean flamingo has
been protected throughout Europe by
the European Commission (EC)
Regulation 338/97 (Eur-Lex 2008, p. 24).
For species listed under Annex B,
imports from a non-European Union
country must be accompanied by a
permit that is only issued if the
Scientific Authority has determined that
trade in the species will not be
detrimental to its survival in the wild.
According to Dr. Ute Grimm (German
Scientific Authority to CITES (Fauna),
Bonn, Germany, in litt. 2008, p. 1), there
have been no imports of Andean
flamingos since this legislation went
into effect (Grimm in litt. 2008, p. 1).
Thus, we cannot conclude that CITES
trade documents were used to smuggle
live birds from Argentina, and the trade
data do not suggest that this is the case.
Egg collection: There is a long history
of collecting flamingo eggs in the
altiplano region. Eggs are harvested for
subsistence use and for sale in local
´
markets (Barbaran 2004, p. 6; BLI 2008,
´
p. 56; Rocha 2002, p. 10; Saenz 2006, p.
89). Walcott (1925, pp. 354–357)
provided a detailed account of egg
collecting at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia),
as described by a local Puna Indian.
According to this account, the locals
knew when the Andean flamingos began
nesting for the season and a group of 8
to 10 villagers would camp at the lake
long enough to gather the eggs. They
gathered nearly every egg, burying the
ones that they could not carry, so that
the birds would not incubate them, and
returning later to retrieve the buried
eggs. The eggs were baked in clay ovens
on site before being transported back to
their village. Another early 20th century
account noted that flamingo eggs were
sold as far back as 1903 in a market at
San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) (Walcott
1925, pp. 354, 360)—this is the nearest
town to Salar de Atacama, the type
locality of the Andean flamingo
(Hellmayr 1932, p. 312). Eggs were
harvested once, twice, or several times
a season (Johnson et al. 1958 pp. 291,
298; Walcott 1925, pp. 354–356).
Accounts describe the annual practice
of harvesting eggs, with entire families
journeying to the lake to set up camp
from December to February (Barfield
1961, p. 96; Johnson et al. 1958 pp. 291–
292). Villagers near Salar de las Parinas
in Chile mention removing crates of
eggs from the colonies with horse-drawn
carts.
Egg collecting has become an
established part of the local culture
´
(Barbaran 2004, p. 6; Rocha 2002, p. 10).
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Egg collecting has been reported at
several wetlands throughout the Andes
that are critical to the Andean
flamingo’s life cycle, including: Laguna
de Pozuelos (Argentina) (Administration
de Parques Nacionales 1994, p. 2);
Lagunas de Vilama (Argentina) (BLI
2008, p. 553; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106);
´
Lago Poopo (Bolivia); Lago Uru Uru
´
(Bolivia) (Saenz 2006, p. 89); Laguna
Colorada (Bolivia) (Hurlbert and Keith
1979, p. 332; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 292;
Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 1); and
Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Hurlbert and
Keith 1979, pp. 332–333; Johnson et al.
1958, p. 298), although some of the eggs
collected are from other species of
flamingo. Egg collection may also occur
at Lago Titicaca (Peru) (Ducks
Unlimited 2007d, p. 27). Residents from
some wetlands in Peru such as Titicaca,
Laguna Salinas, Laguna Loriscota and
Laguna Vizcachas have reported nesting
attempts by small numbers of flamingos
(probably P.chilensis) where egg
gathering by locals terminated the
process.
Collecting is facilitated by the fact
that the birds nest in large colonies.
Large nesting sites are targeted for egg
collection, as collectors can quickly
gather a large number of eggs at these
´
sites (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 111; Saenz
2006, p. 89).
Egg collection has an immediate
negative impact on the Andean
flamingo’s already poor breeding
success (see Population Estimates—
Breeding Success) (Arengo in litt. 2007,
pp. 1–3; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 521).
Because flamingos are long-lived with
slow rates of reproduction (Bucher
1992, p. 183), stable populations can be
maintained if the species’ breeding
success is good every 5–10 years
(William Conway, Wildlife
Conservation Society, Bronx, New York,
as cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112).
However, the numbers of nesting birds
being reported are lower in the past
decade when compared to the 1980s
´
(Parada 1992, Rodrıguez and Contreras
1998—as cited in Caziani et al. 2007, p.
284). Chick production has been very
low for the past 20 years, averaging 800
per year from 1987 to 1997 (Rodriguez
Ramirez 2006, Amado et al. 2007, as
cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1–3),
and 3,000 chicks per year from between
1997 to 2001 (Caziani et al. 2007, p.
283). As discussed in Factor E,
disturbance caused by collection
activities further compounds the
adverse effects of egg collection (see
Factor E).
Increasing demand for eggs and
increased access to habitats further
exacerbates the species’ already poor
breeding success. In 1975, Morrison
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(1975, p. 81) reported that flamingo eggs
were in great demand and that traders
visited nesting areas, including Lagos
´
Poopo and Uru Uru, to buy eggs from
local Indians, transporting eggs away
‘‘by the truckload.’’ As towns grow and
mining operations expand, demand for
eggs increases to satisfy the miners (del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 521). Mining
operations have infiltrated once isolated
wetlands. In 1925, birds nesting at
Laguna Cachi (part of Pastos Grandes,
Bolivia) were considered secure from
egg collecting due to the remote and
inhospitable terrain (Walcott 1925, pp.
354–356). Today, Pastos Grandes, which
is an important breeding ground in
Bolivia, is the site of intense mineral
prospecting (see Factor A).
Tourism and Ecotourism: As
described in Factor A, ecotourism is
prevalent at many wetlands inhabited
by the Andean flamingo, including:
Laguna Grande, Diamante, Brava y
Mulas Muertas y Pozuelos (Argentina),
Laguna de Colorada (Bolivia), Salar de
Atacama, and the TDPS wetland
´
complex, which includes Lagos Poopo
and Uru Uru (the latter three wetlands
´
in Chile). According to the Corporacion
Nacional Forestal (1996c, pp. 10–11),
uncontrolled tourism, especially the use
of four wheeled all-terrain vehicles, has
become a problem at Laguna Negra.
The Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve
(Reserve) in Bolivia encompasses
Laguna Colorada, Laguna Kalina, and
Salar de Chalviri (Ducks Unlimited
2007b, p. 43). The Reserve began
collecting tourism data in 1999
´
(Gonzalez 2006, p. 1). Since 2000,
tourism has increased annually by about
5 percent per year, from 26,066 visitors
in 2000 to 51,271 visitors in 2005
´
(Gonzalez 2006, p. 2). Over the 6-year
period, a total of 142,968 tourists visited
the Reserve, primarily in the Bolivian
winter months of July (24,629 visitors)
and August (32,230 visitors). During the
Andean flamingo breeding season
(November to February), an average of
18,000 people visited the Reserve each
month (Gonzalez 2006, p. 2). In 2005,
ticket sales indicated that 65 percent of
the tourists came to see the flamingos
´
(Gonzalez 2006, p. 2). Within the
Reserve, problems associated with
tourism include increased car traffic and
trash, especially disposable bottles and
other nonbiodegradable waste (Embassy
of Bolivia 2008, pp. 7–8).
At Lago Titicaca (Peru), in addition to
disturbance by local agriculturalists and
fishermen, the large number of visitors
and the noise of motorized vehicles has
decreased the number of birds on the
lake (INRENA 1996, p. 6). At Laguna
Salinas (Peru), which provides habitat
to all three South American flamingo
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species, excavation activities near the
lake had a profound effect on the
flamingos. Flamingos were driven away
from areas where there was noise
caused by excavating machinery,
disrupting feeding and breeding
activities. Flamingos fled nesting sites
during disturbance activities (such as
excavation), and some never returned,
abandoning their nests (Ugarte-Nunez
and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137).
Summary of Factor B
Hunting for local consumption, egg
collection, and tourism have a negative
impact on Andean flamingo populations
throughout their range. Hunting
removes juveniles and adults from the
population, which has already
experienced a severe population decline
within the past 30 years and is
considered the rarest of all flamingo
species in the world. Removal of adults
from the population decreases the
number of sexually mature specimens
available for reproduction, may break
pair bonds, and jeopardizes their
already inconsistent breeding habits.
Although egg-collecting has been
carried out for years, and perhaps
centuries, increased demand has
intensified collection pressures. Egg
collection is facilitated by the flamingo’s
colonial nesting practices and from
increased access to once-remote
wetlands from mining operations
(Factor A). Disturbance from hunting,
egg collection, and tourism exacerbates
the species’ poor breeding success
(Factor E). Therefore, we find that
hunting for local consumption, egg
collection, and tourism are threats to the
continued existence of the Andean
flamingo throughout its range.
With regard to hunting for
international trade, we believe that the
small number of live specimens that
were traded and the near lack of trade
for commercial purposes, combined
with the fact that there have been no
shipments of live Andean flamingos
since 1982, indicate that the level of
international trade, controlled via valid
CITES permits, is small. Therefore, we
find that harvest of flamingos for
international trade is not a threat to the
continued existence of the Andean
flamingo.
C. Disease or Predation
Disease: Flamingos are nomadic
species with the potential to disperse
pathogenic microorganisms and
horizontally transmit disease agents due
to their flocking behavior (Uhart et al.
2006, p. 32). Uhart et al. (2006, p. 32)
found 13 antibodies for various
infectious diseases (indicating exposure)
in a study of all 3 altiplano flamingos.
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Changes in water availability and
habitat quality may favor the emergence
of pathogens, which could affect the
health of flamingos (Uhart et al. 2006, p.
32). However, we are not aware of any
pathogenic diseases that are currently
affecting Andean flamingos in the wild.
A massive mortality of flamingos and
other aquatic birds (on the order of
several thousands) was recorded in
January 1975 around the mouth of the
Segundo River in Mar Chiquita
(Argentina). Bucher (1992, p. 183)
believed the observed mortality was
caused by an outbreak of avian
botulism. The affected birds showed
typical field signs of the disease (Locke
and Friend 1987, as cited in Bucher
1992, p. 183), including: Paralysis of
voluntary muscles, inability to walk or
fly, and a tendency to congregate along
vegetated peninsulas and islands, where
lines of carcasses were seen at the
water’s edge. Avian botulism outbreaks
are associated with receding water
conditions in areas of flooded vegetation
during periods of high temperatures
(Bucher 1992, p. 183). Thus, activities
that decrease water levels at the lakes,
as outlined in Factor A, could cause
disease outbreaks and result in flamingo
mortality.
In 2002, Fabry and Hilliard (2006,
p. 49) began a flamingo monitoring
program in the Atacama Desert to
explore the declining flamingo
populations in the region, test for
linkages between human activity and
declining flamingo populations, and
evaluate flamingo health. The team has
marked and released over 80 flamingos
and has identified several pathogens,
including Newcastle’s disease, Avian
influenza, and West Nile virus, as
possible causes for increasing flamingo
mortality. This research is ongoing.
Predation: Walcott (1925, p. 354)
noted that freshwater gulls (Larus
serranus) at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia)
were likely depredating flamingo eggs.
Derlindati (as reported by Arengo 2009,
p. 56) observed predation on flamingos
by Andean wolf (Dusicyon cuplaeus)
and Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus).
Other potential predators include
pampas fox (Dusicyon griseus), variable
hawk (Buteo poliosoma), and Andean
caracara (Phalcobaenus albogularis).
Johnson et al. (1958, p. 299) concluded
predation by land-bound predators was
not a significant threat to this species,
given the difficulty of access to nesting
sites. However, nesting sites are no
longer as inaccessible as they were in
the mid-20th century. Human activities
(such as mining, urbanization, tourism,
and concomitant infrastructure
development) have infiltrated wetlands
previously considered inaccessible
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(Factor A). This situation has been
compounded by the ongoing drought
conditions throughout a large portion of
the Andean flamingo’s range (Factor E).
In January 1996, Caziani & Derlindati
(2000, p. 124) reported that a colony of
unidentified flamingo nests at Lagunas
Vilama, where Andean and James’
flamingos are known to breed, were
found on dry land—probably due to an
unexpected retraction of the lake—
leaving 1,500 abandoned nests, some of
which had eggs from that season.
Because this species nests in the open,
laying eggs directly on the ground,
many nesting sites can be more easily
accessed, by humans and nonhuman
predators. In the 2006–2007 breeding
season, Childress et al. (2007, p. 7)
noted that an entire colony of 600
unidentified flamingo nests at Laguna
Brava (Argentina, where Andean
flamingos are known to nest) had been
decimated by foxes (species not
´
identified). The Corporacion Nacional
Forestal (1996a, pp. 12) reported that
foxes ate flamingo eggs and chicks at
Los Flamingos National Reserve (Chile),
but did not document the extent of this
predation.
Summary of Factor C
Several diseases have been identified
in the flamingo population and are
being monitored. Potential for disease
outbreaks warrants continued
monitoring and may become a more
significant threat factor in the future,
especially if habitat alteration combined
with the ongoing drought continue to
decrease water levels at the lakes
(Factors A and E). Disease has been
identified and has at least in one case
likely caused mortality (botulism).
Therefore, we find that disease in
flamingos is a threat to the continued
existence of the Andean flamingo.
Predation by foxes, gulls, and other
predators results in direct removal of
eggs, juveniles, and adults from the
population. Predation can have
devastating consequences for the
species, especially given the colonial
nature of the species and its tendency to
nest in only a few wetlands each year.
Predation removes potentially
reproductive adults from the breeding
pool, disrupts mating pairs, and
exacerbates the species’ already poor
breeding success (these effects are
discussed in detail under Factor B).
Therefore, we find that predation is a
threat to the continued existence of the
Andean flamingo throughout its range.
D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory
Mechanisms
Two regulatory issues can be
discussed on a regional level:
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Protections under CITES, and Ramsar
designations.
CITES: The Andean flamingo is listed
in Appendix II of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES). CITES is an international treaty
among 175 nations, including all four
Andean flamingo countries and the
United States, that entered into force in
1975 (UNEP–WCMC 2008a, p. 1). In the
United States, CITES is implemented
through the U.S. Endangered Species
Act (Act; 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). The
Act designates the Secretary of the
Interior as the Scientific and
Management Authorities to implement
the treaty with all functions carried out
by the Service. Under this treaty,
countries work together to ensure that
international trade in animal and plant
species is not detrimental to the survival
of the species, by regulating the import,
export, re-export, and introduction from
the sea of CITES-listed animal and plant
species (USFWS 2008, p. 1). As
discussed under Factor B, we do not
consider international trade to be a
threat impacting the Andean flamingo
and consider that this international
treaty has minimized the potential
threat to the species from international
trade.
Ramsar: The Ramsar Convention,
signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an
multilateral treaty which provides the
framework for national action and
international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands
and their resources. There are presently
157 Contracting Parties to the
Convention (including all of the
countries where the Andean flamingo
occurs), with 1,702 wetland sites,
totaling 153 million hectares, designated
for inclusion in the Ramsar List of
Wetlands of International Importance.
Many wetlands of importance to the
Andean flamingo’s life cycle are
designated as wetlands of international
importance under the Ramsar
Convention. In Argentina, these include:
´
Laguna de Mar Chiquita (Barbaro 2002,
pp. 1–12), Lagunas de Vilama (de la
Zerda et al. 2000, pp. 1–6), Laguna
Brava (de la Fuente 2002, pp. 1–10), and
Laguna de Pozuelos (Administration de
Parques Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–3). In
´
Bolivia, Lagos Poopo and Uru Uru
(Rocha 2002, pp. 1–13) and Laguna
Colorada (Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998,
pp. 1–11) are Ramsar wetlands. Chilean
Ramsar wetlands include Laguna del
Negro Francisco and Laguna Santa Rosa
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996c,
´
pp. 1–12); Salar de Huasco (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996b, pp. 1–5); and
Salar de Surire (Soto 1996, pp. 1–9). In
Peru, Lago Titicaca (INRENA 1996, pp.
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1–14) and Laguna Salinas (Jefatura de la
Reserva Nacional de Salinas y Aguada
Blanca 2003, pp. 1–14) are Ramsar
wetlands. Experts consider Ramsar to
provide only nominal protection of
wetlands, although they also note that
such a designation may increase
international awareness of its ecological
value (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 19).
However, as described below, activities
that negatively impact the Andean
flamingo are ongoing within Ramsar
wetlands, including the curtailment and
destruction of Andean flamingo habitat
(Factor A), and hunting and
overutilization of Andean flamingos
(Factor B). As such, this designation has
not mitigated the impact of threats on
the Andean flamingo.
Due to the wide range of Andean
flamingos in four countries along the
Andes, the remaining analysis of
existing regulatory mechanisms will be
presented on a country-by-country
basis, in alphabetical order.
Argentina: The Andean flamingo is
considered vulnerable in Argentina
(Goldfeder & Blanco 2007, p. 191). The
Provincial Law of Game No. 3,014/73
(Law No. 3,014 1973, pp. 1–5) was
established in Argentina in 1973. Article
7 of this law strictly prohibits hunting,
possession, or transportation of wild
animals, their parts, offspring, nests, or
eggs, except as permitted by regulation
(Law No. 3014, p. 7). Resolution No.
513/2007 (2007, pp. 1–7) and Resolution
No. 1,089/98 (1998, pp. 1–4) prohibit
hunting, trapping, interprovincial
transport, or international trade in
certain species of wildlife, including the
Andean flamingo. Despite this law,
hunting for local consumption of
Andean flamingo individuals and eggs
continues at wetlands of known
importance in Argentina, including
Laguna Pozuelos and Mar Chiquita
´
(Barbaran 2004, p. 11; Bucher 1992, p.
183; Senz 2006, p. 103) (see Factor B).
Therefore, these laws are inadequate to
mitigate the threat of Andean flamingo
hunting for local consumption.
Protected areas have been established
by regulation at several sites occupied
by the Andean flamingo in Argentina,
including: (a) Laguna Brava and Laguna
de Mulas Muertas, (b) Laguna de Mar
Chiquita, (c) Laguna de Pozuelos, and
(d) Lagunas de Vilama. As described
below, the regulatory mechanisms
behind these designations are
inadequate, primarily due to lack of
enforcement, to address or mitigate
ongoing activities that are negatively
impacting the Andean flamingo within
these protected areas, including the
curtailment and destruction of Andean
flamingo habitat (Factor A), and hunting
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and overutilization of Andean flamingos
(Factor B).
(a) Laguna Brava and Laguna de
Mulas Muertas: Provincial Law No.
3944 declared the creation of the
´
˜
Reserva de Vicunas y Proteccion del
Ecosistema Laguna Brava, establishing
Laguna Brava as a protected reserve in
La Rioja Province (BLI 2008, p. 40).
Laguna Mulas Muertas, where the
Andean flamingo has overwintered, is
also included within this reserve (BLI
2008, p. 40; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120).
This law also established the designated
managing authorities and providing for
the formulation of regulations for the
operation of the Reserve, under the
Provincial System of Protected Areas.
There is an outpost for park rangers in
the town of Alto Jague that is equipped
with a 4x4 vehicle and a permanent staff
of four park rangers assigned to the
protected area. Despite this designation,
the habitat within the reserve continues
to be curtailed and disrupted by human
activities. Recent road construction (de
la Fuente 2002, p. 8) (see Factor A) and
increased tourism, including the use of
off-road vehicles (BLI 2008, p. 40) (see
Factors A and B), are ongoing.
Multinational mining companies have
undertaken prospecting activities within
the Reserve, indicating the potential that
mineral extraction could occur there (de
la Fuente 2002, p. 8) (see Factor A).
(b) Laguna de Mar Chiquita: Laguna
de Mar Chiquita is an important
wintering site for Andean flamingos and
was included in the System of Protected
´
Nature Areas of the Province of Cordoba
in 1966 (BLI 2008, pp. 34–37). In 1994,
the area was declared a multiple-use
´
˜
reserve (Reserva de Banados del Rıo
Dulce y Laguna de Mar Chiquita) (BLI
2008, p. 36; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, p.
22). In accordance with existing
legislation, environmental protection is
achieved through the regulated use of
natural resources, respecting its
characteristics, ecological status,
wildlife and potential resources. In
2000, a group of provincial park
wardens was formed to patrol the
reserve. In 2001, there were four new
park wardens, one expert and a
technician to implement environmental
´
legislation in the reserve (Barbaro 2002,
p. 10). Activities that cause habitat
destruction are ongoing around Mar
Chiquita, including pollution from
agriculture, water contamination from
agrochemicals (BLI 2008, pp. 36–37;
Johnson and Arengo 2001, p. 38) (see
Factor A), and disturbance from
ecotourism activities (Ducks Unlimited
2007a, p. 22) (see Factor B).
(c) Laguna de Pozuelos: Located in
Jujuy Province, Laguna de Pozuelos was
designated a Natural Monument in 1981
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and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in
1990 (BLI 2008, p. 31; Ducks Unlimited
2007a, p. 2). It is managed by the
National Parks Administration of
Argentina and is subject to the
regulation of Law No. 22,351 (1980, pp.
1–11) concerning National Parks,
Natural Monuments, and National
Reserves (Administration de Parques
Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–2). Under Law
No. 22,351 (1980, pp. 2), an area that
has been declared a Natural Monument
is conferred ‘‘absolute’’ protection, such
that the land, things, and species of
animals and plants thereon are
inviolable. However, under this law,
only the water surface is protected, and,
despite this protection, mining and
resultant water contamination continue
(de la Fuente 2002, p. 8; Ducks
Unlimited 2007a, p. 4; Goldfeder and
Blanco 2007, p. 193) (see Factor A).
According to the National Park
Administration, a trained warden is
posted at the site (Administration de
Parques Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–2).
Despite this, until recently hunting
continued to threaten the Andean
flamingo at Laguna Pozuelos, where
individuals and their eggs were hunted
for subsistence and local commerce
(Administration de Parques Nacionales
1994, p. 2; BLI 2008, p. 31) (see Factor
B).
(d) Lagunas de Vilama: The lakes that
form Lagunas de Vilama are located
within the Reserva Altoandina de la
Chinchilla, under the jurisdiction of the
province of Jujuy in accordance with
Provincial Decree No. 2,213E–92 (BLI
2008, pp. 52–53; de la Zerda et al. 2000,
p. 5; Provincial Decree No. 2,213E 1992,
pp. 1–5). This Reserve, along the
Argentinean/Chilean border, was
created in 1992 specifically to protect
the chinchilla (Eriomis brevicaudata),
˜
the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna), and
numerous birds (Provincial Decree No.
2,213 E 1992, p. 1). Despite this
regulation, habitat destruction caused
by prospecting for minerals and tourism
(Factor A) and egg collection (Factor B)
are factors that continue to threaten the
Andean flamingo within the Lagunas de
Vilama wetland system (BLI 2008, p.
553; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106).
Bolivia: The 1975 Law on Wildlife,
National Parks, Hunting and Fishing
(Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34)
has the fundamental objective of
protecting the country’s natural
resources. This law governs the
protection, management utilization,
transportation, and selling of wildlife
and their products; the protection of
endangered species; habitat
conservation of fauna and flora; and the
declaration of national parks, biological
reserves, refuges, and wildlife
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sanctuaries, tending to the preservation,
promotion, and rational use of these
resources. In Bolivia, the Andean
flamingo is protected in general in
Article 111 of the Environmental Law
No. 1333 (1992), and also, in general, by
Supreme Decree 22641 (8 November
1990), which declares an indefinite
moratorium on hunting any wildlife
species (Arengo 2009, p. 63). However,
hunting of flamingos continues to be a
´
threat at Lake Poopo (Rocha 2002, p. 10;
´
Saenz 2006, pp. 88–89) (Factor B).
Wetlands frequented by the Andean
flamingo in Bolivia that have some level
of protected status include: (a) Lago
´
Poopo and (b) Laguna Colorada, Laguna
Kalina, and Salar de Chalviri. However,
the regulations are ineffective at
reducing the threat of habitat
destruction (Factor A), hunting and egg
collection (Factor B), and human
disturbance (Factor E) within these
protected areas.
´
´
(a) Lago Poopo: In 2000, Lago Poopo,
an overwintering site for the Andean
flamingo (see Current Range), was
declared a natural heritage site and
ecological reserve under Law No. 2,097
(2000, pp. 7–8) (Declaration of National
Patrimony and Ecological Reserve of
´
Oruru, for Lake Poopo in the
Department of Oruru). Law No. 2,097
(2000, p. 7) allowed for international
cooperation on the conservation and
rehabilitation of the lake. However, as of
2002, Rocha (2002, p. 11) noted that
little had been done to ensure the lake’s
conservation. In their review of the
conservation and management
challenges of saline lakes, Jellison et al.
(2004, p. 14) concluded that because
´
Lago Poopo is not part of the national
system of protected areas, there has
been little attention to its conservation
and ‘‘wise use’’ (Jellison et al. 2004, p.
14).
´
Lago Poopo is on the terminal end of
´
the TDPS (Titicaca-Desaguadero-PoopoSalar de Coipasa) hydrological system
along the border with Peru (Jellison et
al. 2004, p. 11, 120), with Lago Titicaca
straddling the border between the two
countries (Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 1)
(see Current Range: Bolivia). Water
contamination from mining and
metallurgical industries has
contaminated the TDPS water system
for many years (Adamek et al. 1998,
Cardoza et al. 2004—as cited in Jellison
et al. 2004, p. 12; Jellison et al. 2004, p.
11; Ricalde 2003, pp. 10, 91). Because
´
Lago Poopo is located at the terminal
end of the endoreic (closed) TDPS
drainage system, pollutants are more
likely to concentrate there (Jellison et al.
2004, p. 120) (Factor A). In addition to
water contamination, Andean flamingos
´
at Lago Poopo are exposed to threats
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from indiscriminant hunting (Rocha
´
2002, p. 10; Saenz 2006, pp. 88–89)
(Factor B).
(b) Laguna Colorada, Laguna Kalina,
and Salar de Chalviri: Lagunas Colorada
and Kalina are important breeding sites
that belong to the same hydrological
water basin (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p.
13). Salar de Chalviri is a wetland
complex that provides habitat for the
Andean flamingo during the winter.
Laguna Colorada was one of five
wetlands, and the only wetland in
Bolivia that, in 2005, harbored 50
percent of the breeding population
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). In the most
recent simultaneous census, for 2006–
2007, breeding in Bolivia occurred only
at two wetlands, Laguna Colorada and
Kalina (see Current Range). Therefore,
the effects of habitat reduction (Factor
A), hunting, and tourism (Factor B) at
these wetlands greatly diminish the
numbers of reproductive adults and
juvenile offspring, and the overall
breeding success of the species.
The Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve
(La Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina
Eduardo Avaroa) (Reserve) was
established in 1973 (Supreme Decree
11,231 1973, pp. 1–2), expressly to
protect Laguna Colorada for its role in
supporting a large diversity of wildlife,
including rare species such as the
Andean flamingo, and to counter a
growing commerce in these species,
which were being harvested from the
area. The Decree established the
boundaries of the Reserve, declared
hunting within the park illegal,
established a guard post within the
park, and empowered the Minister of
Agriculture and Cattle to conduct the
necessary biological and ecological
studies to manage the park. The area of
the Reserve was defined as Laguna
Colorada itself (which covers
approximately 12,948 ac (5,240 ha))
(Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 13), plus a
6-mi (10-km) radial area surrounding
the lake (Supreme Decree No. 11,239
1973, p. 1). Under Supreme Decree No.
18,431 (1981, pp. 1–2), the limits of the
Reserve were extended to 1,764,515
acres (714,074 ha). With this expansion,
Laguna Kalina and Salar de Chalviri
were thus incorporated within the
Reserve (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, pp.
13–16). In 1992, the Reserve was added
to the Protected Area System (Sistema
Nacional de Areas Protegidas (SNAP))
(FUNDESNAP 2008, p. 1; Rocha and
Eyzaguirre 1998, pp. 8–9).
As of 1998, the Reserve had a
management plan, but it was not being
implemented. However, efforts were
being made to manage tourism with the
objective of wetland conservation and to
patrol the area in order to avoid
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50829
pilferage of flamingo eggs during the
breeding season (Rocha and Eyzaguirre
1998, pp. 8–9). As of 2004, the following
ongoing problems were identified
within the Reserve: Uncontrolled and
badly managed tourism; high
concentrations of activities within the
lagoons, including Laguna Colorada;
lack of environmental controls for the
mining industry; implementation of a
geothermal project; uncertain financing
to support activities to manage the
protected area; unregulated use of
archeological and natural resources; and
weak management of the protected area
(Flores 2004, p. 5). At Laguna Colorada,
water contamination from tourism
(RIDES 2005, p. 21; Rocha and
Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8) and livestock
grazing are ongoing (Ducks Unlimited
2007b, p. 14; Flores 2004, pp. 35–36)
(Factor A). Egg collecting has been
reported at Laguna Colorada for many
years (Hurlbert and Keith 1979, p. 332;
Johnson et al. 1958, p. 292; Rocha and
Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 1) and continues to
be a problem within the Reserve (Ducks
Unlimited 2007b, p. 17) (Factor B).
Disturbance caused by collection
activities further compounds the
adverse effects of egg collection (see
Factor E).
Supreme Decree No. 28,591 (2006, pp.
2–17) regulated the management of
tourism within the protected areas that
make up the National System of
Protected Areas. It established a
framework of regulatory provisions
related to tourism so that each protected
area could develop rules specific to the
reserve, to ensure the conservation and
protection of natural and cultural
heritage. The Eduardo Avaroa National
Reserve (Reserve) has been working
toward a tourism management program
for some time, including the collection
and examination of tourism data for the
Reserve in order to better understand
how the Reserve is used and how to
adjust their management of activities
´
(Gonzalez 2006, p. 1). However, tourism
continues to increase within the Reserve
´
(Gonzalez 2006, p. 2), with concomitant
stress on and contamination of the water
resources (RIDES 2005, p. 21; Rocha and
Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8) (Factor A), along
with the deleterious effect of human
disturbance on the species (CONAF,
Region II, as cited in INRENA 1996, p.
11) (Factor E).
Chile: Chile outlined the methods by
which they classify various wild species
as threatened or endangered species
under Supreme Decree No. 75 (2006, pp.
´
1–6)—Reglamento para la Clasificacion
de Especies Silvestres—and has just
initiated the process of classifying
species with the publication of two
proposed lists of species (Exenta No.
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1,579 2006, pp. 1–4) (Da Inicio a
´
Proceso de Clasificacion de Especies e
Indica Listado de Especies a Clasificar),
but the Andean flamingo has not been
listed nor has it been proposed for
listing as threatened or endangered (see
www.conama.cl/clasificacionespecies/).
Therefore, there is no regulatory
mechanism that specifically protects the
Andean flamingo on a national level.
The Chilean National Commission on
´
the Environment (Comision Nacional
del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA)) was
established in 1990, and, in March 1994,
the General Environmental Law (Ley de
Bases Generales del Medio Ambiente)
went into effect. The General
Environmental Law restructured
CONAMA and introduced new
instruments of environmental
management that had not previously
existed: Environmental education and
research; public participation;
environmental quality standards to
preserve nature and environmental
heritage; emission standards; plans for
management, prevention, and cleanup;
responsibility for environmental
damage; and the system of
environmental impact assessment.
Under the General Environmental Law,
several new regulations have been
established over more than 20 areas,
including atmospheric, water, noise,
and light pollution (Embassy of Chile
2007, pp. 1–2). However, water
contamination from mineral extraction,
agricultural pursuits, sewage, and trash
(Factor A), and disturbance from noise
(Factor E), are ongoing at Chilean
wetlands of importance to Andean
flamingo life cycle, including: (a)
´
Laguna Ascotan and (b) Salar de
Atacama. Therefore, this regulatory
mechanism is not being effectively
implemented to reduce the threats to the
Andean flamingo.
´
(a) Laguna Ascotan was once
considered a breeding site for the
species (Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296;
Kahl 1975 p. 100). While the species
continues to to feed at the site (Vilina
´
and Martınez 1998, p. 28), there are no
recent reports of nesting there. This may
be attributed to mineral extraction
(including borax) (Johnson 1958, p. 296)
(Factor A) and concomitant disturbance
activities (Factor E).
(b) Salar de Atacama has been a
consistent and primary breeding ground
(Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Childress et
al. 2007a, p. 7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c,
pp. 1–4; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296).
Mining activities and increased human
presence and tourism have disturbed
foraging and nesting birds there
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996a,
p. 9). Over 50,000 people visit Salar de
Atacama (Chile) and surrounding areas
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each year (RIDES 2005, p. 21). These
activities lead to water pollution,
increased water usage, and disturbance
of the flamingo life cycle. The breeding
success of the species has been steadily
decreasing at Salar de Atacama (Fabry
and Hilliard 2006, p. 1). In Chile,
breeding was attempted at four sites in
Salar de Atacama. A total of 2,900 pairs
of Andean flamingos laid eggs, but only
538 chicks survived (Childress et al.
2007a, p. 7).
Protected areas have been established
by regulation at four sites occupied by
the Andean flamingo in Chile: (a)
Laguna del Negro Francisco, (b) Salar de
Surire, and (c) Lagunas Atacama and
Pujsa. These wetlands have figured as
consistent breeding and overwintering
habitats for many years (Bucher et al.
2000, p. 119; Childress et al. 2007a, p.
7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4;
˚
Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86;
Hellmayr 1932, p. 312; Johnson et al.
1958, p. 296; Kahl 1975 p. 100).
However, as described below, the
regulations are ineffective at reducing
the threats of habitat destruction (Factor
A), hunting and egg collection (Factor
B), and human disturbance (Factor E)
within these protected areas.
(a) Laguna del Negro: Salar de Negro
Francisco provides year-round habitat
for the Andean flamingo (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p.
6; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). Laguna del
Negro Francisco was included in the
Parque Nacional Nevado Tres Cruces
that forms part of the national system of
protected wildlife areas (SNASPE)
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996c,
p. 11). Despite this designation, the
´
Corporacion Nacional Forestal (1996c,
pp. 10–11) reported several persistent
threats, including: (1) Concessions for
water use held by the mining companies
that work on the altiplano; (2)
prospecting and digging for minerals
and underground water, which involves
road building that makes it possible for
people to reach places that were
formerly inaccessible; (3) intense illegal
bird hunting (Bucher 1992, p. 183,
´
Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996c, p.
11); and (4) uncontrolled tourism,
especially the use of four-wheeled all´
terrain vehicles (Corporacion Nacional
Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11).
(b) Salar de Surire: Andean flamingos
breed and overwinter at this wetland
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; McFarlane 1975, p. 88;
Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). In 2001, Salar
de Surire, along with Salar de Atacama,
was the most successful Andean
flamingo breeding site in Chile (Caziani
et al. 2007, p. 279). The Parque Nacional
Lauca was created in 1970,
incorporating approximately 1,285,000
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acres (520,000 ha), including the Salar
de Surire. In 1983, the limits of the
national park were redefined, and three
administrative units for protected nature
areas were created: The present Parque
Nacional Lauca, the National Nature
˜
Reserve Las Vicunas, and the Salar de
Surire Nature Reserve, including part of
the salt marsh of 27,906 acres (11,298
ha) (Soto 1996, p. 8). Lauca Biosphere
Reserve (including all three
administrative units) was designated a
UNESCO Biosphere reserve in 1983
(Rundel and Palma 2000, p. 262).
Despite this designation, the threat of
mining in the park continues (Rundel
and Palma 2000, pp. 270–271). The
number of people visiting remote Salar
de Surire (Chile), a primary Andean
flamingo breeding site, was under 1,000
as of 1995, but increasing (Soto 1996, p.
7). One travel website advertises the
availability of a campsite
(www.chilecontact.com/en/conozca/
surire.php), noting that no public
transportation is available and
recommending the use of four-wheel
drive vehicles to access and tour the
area. The impact of tourism is discussed
under Factor B.
(c) Salars de Pujsa and Atacama: As
mentioned above, Salar de Atacama
provides year-round flamingo habitat
and nesting sites. Salar de Pujsa was
reported as a nesting site in 1997
(Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112), although no
nesting was reported there in the 2004,
2005, or 2006 breeding seasons
(Childress et al. 2005, p. 7; Childress et
al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et al. 2007a, p.
7). These Salars are among the wetlands
that were included in the Los
Flamencos National Reserve (Reserve),
designated in April 1990 by Decree No.
50 of the Ministry of Agriculture,
although only part of Salar de Atacama
is included. These wetlands form an
important area for the biological
stability of flamingo populations
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996a,
pp. 12–13).
In addition to the Reserve
management plan, there is a proposed
strategy for the sustainable management
and regulation of activities in the salt
marshes and for their conservation. The
most recent reports available deem the
management at this site insufficient, due
to the limited number of staff and the
´
large area of the reserve (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 12–13).
Locals at Salar de Atacama hunt the
Andean flamingo for its feathers and for
ritualistic use (Castro and Varela 1992,
p. 22) (Factor B). Road building has
increased access to nesting areas and
facilitated hunting and egg collection
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996a,
pp. 11–12; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p. 3)
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(Factor A). Water extraction in this
endoreic (closed) basin, which is fed
only by summer storms and winter
´
snowmelts, is ongoing (Corporacion
Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 8–9). The
rights to 13,137 ft3/s (6.2 m3/s) of water
have been allocated; however, the water
recharge in the basin is only about
10,594 ft3/s (5 m3/s) (RIDES 2005, p. 16)
(Factor A).
Peru: The Andean flamingo is
considered vulnerable by the Peruvian
government under Supreme Decree No.
034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855), which
prohibits hunting, taking, transport, or
trade of endangered species, except as
permitted by regulation. At Laguna
Salinas (an overwintering site in Peru),
hunters have previously killed
flamingos for target practice or just ‘‘to
get a close look at one.’’ The extent of
this persecution at Laguna Salinas is
unclear, but may have abated since
installation of a park guard watch post
in mid-1998 (Ugarte-Nunez and
Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137). At
Lago Titicaca (Peru), localized hunting
and the collection of birds’ eggs may be
ongoing (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 27).
Excessive hunting is a problem at Lago
Parinacochas (an overwintering site in
Peru) (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 23).
The Reserva Nacional Titicaca National
and Reserva Nacional Salinas y Aguada
Blanca are not under strict protection
regimes and allow subsistence level of
activities, including hunting. Laguna
Parinacochas is not under any legal
protection. Therefore, this regulatory
mechanism is ineffective at protecting
the Andean flamingo or mitigating the
threat of hunting (Factor B).
Protected areas have been established
through regulation at two sites occupied
by the Andean flamingo in Peru: (a)
Laguna Salinas and (b) Lago Titicaca.
Lagunas Salinas has long provided
overwintering habitat for the Andean
flamingo (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279;
Hellmayr & Conover 1948, p. 277; Kahl
1975, pp. 99–100). Fourteen percent of
the population overwintered there in
2003 (Ricalde 2003, p. 91). Lago Titicaca
is part of the TDPS wetland system, to
´
which Lagos Poopo and Uru Uru
(Bolivia) belong. These last two lakes in
the wetland complex provide an
important variety of overwintering
habitat for the Andean flamingo, where
more than 50 percent of the known
population of Andean flamingos
overwintered in 2000 (Caziani et al.
2007, p. 279; Mascitti and Bonaventura
2002, p. 62). However, as described
below, the regulations are ineffective at
reducing the threat of habitat
destruction (Factor A), hunting and egg
collection (Factor B), predation (Factor
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C), and human disturbance (Factor E)
within these protected areas.
(a) Laguna Salinas: Laguna Salinas is
part of the Reserve National Salinas and
Aguada Blanca (Reserve), established by
Supreme Decree No. 070–79–AA in
1979 (1979, pp. 260–262). A master plan
for the Reserve was adopted in 2001
(Jefatura de la Reserva Nacional de
Salinas y Aguada Blanca 2003, pp. 6–7).
However, at Laguna Salinas, which
provides habitat for all three Andean
flamingo species (Ducks Unlimited
2007d, p. 26), the habitat is being
destroyed or modified by mining, fires,
agriculture, and drainage for drinking
water (Ricalde 2003, p. 91; UgarteNunez and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000,
p. 135) (Factor A). Flamingos are absent
from polluted areas of the lake (Factor
A); Andean flamingos are sensitive to
reduced water levels (Factor A); and
disturbance activities disrupt flamingo
nesting and eating habits on the lake
(Factor E) (Ugarte-Nunez and
Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, pp. 135,
137, 139). In addition to reducing
flamingo habitat availability, increased
road construction to support mining and
tourism (Factor A) facilitates hunting
and predator access to nesting grounds
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996a,
pp. 12) (Factors B and C).
(b) Lago Titicaca: The Titicaca
National Reserve (Reserva Nacional del
Titicaca) (Reserve) (89,364 acres (36,180
ha)) encompasses approximately 8
percent of the Peruvian portion of Lago
Titicaca (Supreme Decree No. 185–78–
AA 1978, p. 257). The Reserve was
created in 1978 (Chief Resolution No.
311–2001–INRENA 2001, pp. 413–415)
to guarantee the conservation of its
natural resources because of the
existence of exceptional characteristics
of wild fauna and flora, scenic beauty,
and traditional use of natural resources
in harmony with the environment. In
addition, it was created to promote the
socioeconomic development of the
neighboring populations through the
wise use of natural resources and the
promotion of tourism. The Peruvian
Navy controls navigation on all of the
lakes in Peru, including boats that visit
the reserve. It also patrols and monitors
the border, and ensures compliance
with regulations on hunting and the use
of wildlife resources from the lake
(INRENA 1996, pp. 9–10). The Institute
of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional
de Recursos Naturales—INRENA) noted
that the large number of visitors and
noise disturbance from motorized
vehicles negatively impacted the
number of birds on the lake (Factor E)
(INRENA 1996, p. 6). The waters of Lago
Titicaca are polluted from boat traffic
and domestic sewage, and localized
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hunting and egg collection may be
occurring there (Ducks Unlimited
2007d, p. 27; Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11;
Ricalde 2003, p. 91).
Summary of Factor D
The existing regulatory mechanisms
or enforcement of these mechanisms
throughout the species’ range are
inadequate to protect the Andean
flamingo or mitigate the factors that are
negatively impacting the species and its
habitat, including habitat destruction
(Factor A), hunting and tourism (Factor
B), predation (Factor C), and
disturbance (Factor E). Therefore, we
find that the existing regulatory
mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate
the threats to the continued existence of
the Andean flamingo throughout its
range.
E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors
Affecting the Continued Existence of the
Species
Two additional factors are having a
negative impact on the Andean flamingo
population: Human disturbance and
drought.
Human disturbance: Walcott (1925,
pp. 355–356) noted that the birds are
shy, and, when eggs are collected by
humans, Andean flamingos do not
return to lay a second egg. Jameison and
Bingham (1912, pp. 12, 14) noted that
extensive sheep and cattle pastures
existed around Lago Parinacochas and
that flamingos no longer nested there.
Many human-induced disturbances
exist throughout the Andean flamingos’
range. Mining, population growth,
tourism, and associated road
construction and maintenance generally
increase disturbance and noise and can
make nesting and foraging areas
unsuitable for the Andean flamingo.
These disturbances have led to
decreased numbers of birds foraging and
nesting at several sites that are
important for the Andean flamingo
reproductive cycle, including: Salar de
´
Atacama (Chile) (Corporacion Nacional
Forestal 1996a, p. 9), Laguna Colorada
(Bolivia) (Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998, p.
8), and the TDPS wetland system
(INRENA 1996, p. 6). Flamingos that are
disturbed during nesting season have
been known to abandon their nests
(Ugarte-Nunez and MosaurietaEchegaray 2000, p. 137). Road
construction has increased access to
wetlands, facilitating additional
disturbances from foot traffic and
motorized vehicles at lakes, such as
Laguna Salinas (Peru) (Ugarte-Nunez
and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137),
Lago Loriscota (Peru) (Valqui et al.
2000, p. 112), Laguna Brava (Argentina)
(BLI 2008, p. 40; de la Fuente 2002, p.
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8), and Lago Titicaca (Peru) (INRENA
1996, p. 6). Disturbance has increased
with the increase in tourism and human
encroachment into Andean flamingo
wetlands, including: Laguna de Mar
Chiquita (Argentina) (Ducks Unlimited
2007a, p. 22), Laguna Brava (Argentina)
(BLI 2008, p. 40), Lagunas de Catamarca
(Argentina) (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106),
Laguna Negro Francisco (Chile)
´
(Corporacion Nacional Forestal 1996c,
pp. 10–11), Laguna de Colorada
(Bolivia) (Embassy of Bolivia 2008, pp.
7–8), Salar de Atacama (Chile), and the
TDPS wetland complex, which includes
´
Lagos Poopo and Uru Uru (Chile)
(INRENA 1996, p. 6).
Long-lived species with slow rates of
reproduction, such as the Andean
flamingo, can appear to have robust
populations, but can quickly decline
towards extinction if reproduction does
not keep pace with mortality (BLI 2008,
p. 2; Bucher 1992, p. 183; del Hoyo et
al. 1992, p. 517). In the case of Andean
flamingos, Conway (W. Conway, as
cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112)
suggests that a stable population can be
maintained if the species’ breeding
success is good every 5–10 years.
Andean flamingos have temporally
sporadic and spatially concentrated
breeding patterns, and their breeding
success and recruitment are low
(Caziani et al. 2007; Childress et al.
2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7;
Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7).
Productivity estimates from intensive
studies of breeding sites in Chile
indicate marked fluctuations over the
past 20 years, with periods of very low
breeding success (Arengo in litt. 2007,
p. 2). Reproduction is spatially
concentrated in just a few wetlands
(Childress et al. 2005, p. 7; Childress et
al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et al. 2007a, p.
7; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112).
Drought: The altiplano region
underwent a drought from the early
1990s until 2004 which affected Andean
flamingo populations. In addition to this
drought, the water levels of the salars
and lagunas occupied by the Andean
flamingo normally expand and contract
seasonally, depending in large part on
summer rains to ‘‘recharge’’ or refill
them (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, pp. 124–125; Caziani et
al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti and Caziani
1997, p. 328). Laguna de Mar Chiquita
(Argentina) fluctuates by up to 20 in (50
cm) in the dry season (Ducks Unlimited
2007a, p. 21). In addition to seasonal
flucuations, water levels fluctuate up to
57 cm daily at the northern end of the
lake, due to regular strong winds
making some sites available for feeding
while others unavailable on a daily
basis. It is estimated that up to 95
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percent of the total water input in the
TDPS water system evaporates
(Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 2). In addition
to the seasonal cycle of expansion and
contraction, there are longer-term cycles
in which lakes experience extended
periods of expansion or contraction
(Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122).
For instance, Laguna Pozuelos
occasionally dries completely—on about
a 100-year cycle. The last time it dried
out completely was in 1958 (Mascitti &
Caziani 1997, p. 321). According to
researchers, wetlands have been drying
out on a regional scale since the early
1990s due to extensive drought
conditions (Caziani and Derlindati 2000,
pp. 124–125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110;
Mascitti and Caziani 1997, p. 328). The
shallow wetlands preferred by Andean
flamingos are subject to high rates of
evapotranspiration, and drought
conditions accelerate this process
(Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122).
Andean flamingos are sensitive to
reduced water levels (Ugarte-Nunez and
Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, pp. 135).
The flamingo population at Laguna
Pozuelos, which has shrunk to an
estimated 66 percent of its usual size,
has strongly diminished since the
winter of 1993, which researchers
consider a result of extensive lake
desiccation (Mascitti and Caziani 1997,
p. 328). Other wetlands are in the
process of drying out or shrinking as a
result of drought, including Salar de
Chalviri (Bolivia) (Ducks Unlimited
´
2007b, pp. 17–20); Lago Poopo (Bolivia)
(Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5); Lagunas
Vilama (Argentina) (Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, p. 122); and the TDPS
wetland system (Bolivia, Chile, and
Peru) (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11). Lago
Uru Uru (Bolivia) nearly dried out in
1983 but ‘‘recharged’’ in 1984 after
flooding (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5).
Laguna Salinas (Peru) nearly dried out
in 1982–1983, but refilled during heavy
rains in 1984. Every few years, Laguna
Salinas and large parts of Parinacochas
partially or totally dry out, making
habitat unavailable (Arengo 2009, p. 77).
Currently, the water fluctuates widely
each year, nearly drying out from
September through January (Ducks
Unlimited 2007d, p. 25).
Andean flamingos are equally
sensitive to increasing water levels.
Andean flamingos generally occupy
wetlands that are less than 3 ft (1 m)
˚
deep (Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86;
˜
Mascitti and Castenera 2006, p. 331). In
1998, breeding was reported for the first
time at Laguna Brava. The same year,
more than 7,000 non-breeding birds
were reported 4 mi (7 km) away at
Laguna de Mulas Muertas, which was
not a normal feeding habitat. Bucher et
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al. (2000, p. 120) believe this shift in
˜
habitat use was prompted by El Nino,
which caused increased water levels at
their usual nesting and feeding sites
across the border in Chile. Laguna de
Mar Chiquita (Argentina) experienced a
period of ‘‘exceptional flooding’’
beginning in 1977, such that nesting
sites were inundated and the salinity of
the water decreased (Ducks Unlimited
2007a, p. 21). Long known only as an
overwintering site, breeding was
recently reported at Mar Chiquita
(Childress et al. 2005, p. 6).
When winter brings increased aridity
and lower temperatures, higher altitude
wetlands may dry out or freeze over.
Under these conditions, Andean
flamingos may move to lower altitudes
(Blake 1977, p. 207; Boyle et al. 2004,
pp. 570–571; Bucher 1992, p. 182;
Caziani et al. 2006. p. 17; Caziani et al.
2007, pp. 279, 281; del Hoyo 1992, p.
˚
519; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 85;
Hurlbert and Keith 1979, pp. 330;
Mascitti and Bonaventura 2002, p. 360;
˜
Mascitti and Castanera 2006, p. 328).
Research has recently shown that
Andean flamingos use their habitat on a
landscape level—beyond the Salar or
Laguna in which they feed or breed—
using wetland systems that provide a
variety of habitat options from which to
select optimal nesting and feeding sites
(Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122;
Caziani et al. 2001, pp. 104, 110;
Derlindati 2008, p. 10). Flamingo
productivity is affected by climatic
variability and its influence on water
availability during the breeding season
(Caziani et al. 2007, p. 284). Although
the Andean flamingo can move between
wetlands in response to annual climatic
variability (Bucher et al. 2000, pp. 119–
120; Mascitti 2001, p. 20; Mascitti and
Bonaventura 2002, pp. 362–364), drastic
water level changes can significantly
alter the seasonal altitudinal movements
of the Andean flamingo (Mascitti and
Caziani 1997, pp. 324–326).
Summary of Factor E
The extent to which human
disturbance has infiltrated Andean
flamingo habitat and the ongoing
activities that contribute to this
disturbance could have long-lasting
consequences on the population size
and age structure, especially
considering the species’ unique lifehistory, breeding patterns, and recent
years of low productivity (see
Population Estimates: Breeding
Success). Therefore, we find that human
disturbance activities are threats to the
continued existence of the Andean
flamingo throughout its range.
Andean flamingo habitat throughout
the Andes has experienced long-term
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significant drought. The species’
reliance upon shallow wetlands during
its entire lifecycle makes it particularly
vulnerable to threats that influence the
amount and distribution of
precipitation, runoff, or
evapotranspiration. The drought causes
the shallow wetlands upon which this
species depends for its entire life cycle
to dry out or to fluctuate widely from
year to year, which disrupt the species’
breeding and feeding cycles, and can
strand entire nesting colonies when
waters retract unexpectedly. These
drought conditions are exacerbated by
water extraction and pollution occurring
throughout the species’ habitat (Factor
A). Reduced water levels can increase
access to nesting sites, facilitating
predation and hunting (Factors B and
C). Therefore, we find drought to be a
threat to the continued existence of the
Andean flamingo throughout its range.
Status Determination for the Andean
Flamingo
The Andean flamingo is colonial,
feeding and breeding in flocks, and is
the rarest of all six flamingo species
worldwide. Experts consider that the
more dispersed nature of the species at
smaller nesting sites has inhibited
reproduction in the species. The
Andean flamingo underwent a severe
population decline in the last few
decades, from a conservative estimate of
50,000 to 100,000 in the early 1980s to
a current estimate of 34,000. In the past
20 years, nesting sites and breeding has
declined with increased habitat
alteration (Factor A), overutilization
(Factor B), disease and predation (Factor
C), as well as increased human
disturbance and an ongoing drought
(Factor E). The Andean flamingo’s entire
life cycle relies on the availability of
networks of shallow saline wetlands
(salars and lagunas) at low, medium,
and high altitudes that are characteristic
throughout its range in Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Several
manmade and natural factors are having
a negative impact on the flamingo’s
persistence in the wild. These factors
include mining activities and resultant
pollution, increasing human population
and water usage, hunting and egg
collection, tourism, predation, human
disturbance, and drought conditions.
Mining occurs at many of the wetlands
that the Andean flamingo depends upon
for habitat. The threats from mining
include direct habitat destruction, water
pollution, water extraction, and
disturbance (Factors A and E). Hunting
and egg collecting reduce the number of
individuals in the population and
exacerbate the species’ poor breeding
success and low recruitment rate (Factor
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B). In combination with these habitat
threats, the altiplano region is
undergoing a long-term drought, which
is impacting the availability and quality
of wetlands for feeding, breeding, and
overwintering (Factor E). Increased
tourism at the wetlands is taxing limited
water supplies, causing further water
contamination from trash and sewage,
and increasing habitat disturbance from
human presence (Factors A and B).
Infrastructure to support mining and
tourism destroys and increases access to
Andean flamingo habitats, facilitating
hunting, egg collecting, and human
influx, along with increased pollution,
water use, and disturbance (Factors A,
B, and E). Predation removes potentially
reproductive adults from the breeding
pool, disrupts mating pairs, and
exacerbates the species’ already poor
breeding success and is facilitated by
increased access to wetlands and the
ongoing drought (Factors A, B, and E).
Many wetlands within protected areas
continue to undergo activities that
destroy habitat or remove individuals
from the population (including hunting
and egg collecting), such that the
regulatory mechanisms are inadequate
to mitigate the threats to the species and
its habitat (Factor D). The magnitude of
the threats is exacerbated by the species’
recent and drastic reduction in
numbers, poor breeding success and
recruitment, and the species’ reliance on
only a few wetlands for the majority of
its reproductive output.
Section 3 of the Act defines an
‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species
which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as
‘‘any species which is likely to become
an endangered species within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range.’’ Based
on the immediate and ongoing
significant threats to the Andean
flamingo throughout its entire range, as
described above, we determine that the
Andean flamingo is in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range.
Therefore, on the basis of the best
available scientific and commercial
information, we are listing the Andean
flamingo as an endangered species
throughout all of its range.
II. Chilean woodstar (Eulidia
yarrellii)
Species Description
The Chilean woodstar, endemic to
Chile and Peru, is a small hummingbird
in the Trochilidae family (BLI 2008). No
larger than the size of most moths
(Johnson 1967, p. 121), the Chilean
woodstar is approximately 3 inches (in)
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(8 centimeters (cm)) in length and has
a short black bill (BLI 2008; del Hoyo et
al. 1999, p. 674). Males have iridescent
olive-green upperparts, white
underparts, and a bright violet-red
throat (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674;
˚
Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 296).
Females also have iridescent olive-green
upperparts; however, their underparts
are buff (pale yellow-brown) and they
do not have a brightly colored throat
˚
(Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). The
male Chilean woodstar has a strongly
forked tail, which is green in the center
and blackish-brown on the ends, while
the female’s tail is unforked and has
broad white tips (BLI 2008). It is also
known as Yarrell’s woodstar (del Hoyo
et al. 1999, p. 647) and Picaflor Chico
de Arica (Johnson 1967, p. 121). The
species is locally known as ‘‘Picaflor’’ or
´
‘‘Colibrı ’’ (Johnson 1967, p. 121).
Taxonomy
The species was first taxonomically
described by Bourcier in 1847 and
placed in Trochilidae as Eulidia yarrellii
(BLI 2008). According to the CITES
species database, the Chilean woodstar
is also known by the synonyms Myrtis
yarrellii and Trochilus yarrellii (UNEP–
WCMC 2008b). Both CITES and BirdLife
International recognize the species as
Eulidia yarrellii (BLI 2008). Therefore,
we accept the species as Eulidia
yarrellii, which follows the Integrated
Taxonomic Information System (ITIS
2008).
Habitat and Life History
Hummingbird habitat requirements
are poorly understood (del Hoyo et al.
1999, p. 490). Many species are highly
adaptable, adjusting to human-induced
changes or expanding their ranges if
food conditions are favorable. Others
rapidly decline or are in danger of
extinction due to environmental
disturbances (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p.
490). The Chilean woodstar has
generally been described as inhabiting
riparian thickets, secondary growth,
desert river valleys, arid scrub,
agricultural lands, and gardens
(Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 233). Estades
et al. (2007, p. 169) looked at a variety
of habitat variables in relation to
Chilean woodstar numbers and found
that tree cover in September was the
only variable that significantly affected
their abundance. In areas with higher
tree cover, more Chilean woodstars were
observed (Estades et al. 2007, p. 169).
During the rainy season, when
woodstars have more resources to
exploit at higher elevations, the
population is more dispersed and
vegetation variables do not appear to
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limit the abundance of the species
(Estades et al. 2007, p. 170).
As with all hummingbird species, the
Chilean woodstar relies on nectarproducing flowers for food but also
relies on insects as a source of protein
(del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 482; Estades et
al. 2007, p. 169). The Chilean woodstar
drinks nectar from the flowers of a
variety of native trees such as Geoffroea
˜
decorticans (chanar) and Schinus molle
(pimento), and ornamental plants such
as Lantana camara, Pelargonium spp.,
and Bougainvillea sp. (Estades et al.
2007, p. 169). In addition, the species
has been seen feeding from the flowers
of several crops, including alfalfa, garlic,
onion, and tomato (Estades et al. 2007,
p. 169). Its small beak and body size
enable it to exploit flowers with very
small corollas (collective term for the
petals of a flower) (Estades et al. 2007,
p. 172).
Breeding activity likely takes place
between August and September (del
Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674), although
active nests have occasionally been
found at other times of the year,
suggesting that there may be some
temporal variability (Estades et al. 2007,
p. 169). Most nests have been located in
olive trees (Olea europaea) at an average
height of 7.5 ± 1.3 ft (2.3 ± 0.4 m), but
a few nests were found in native shrubs
and ornamental trees (Estades et al.
2007, p. 169).
A 2006 study by Estades and Aguirre
(2006, p. 6) found Chilean woodstars
nesting in only one location, a site in
the Chaca area of the Vitor Valley that
is less than 2.5 ac (1 ha) in size. The
breeding site is an old olive grove that
is lightly managed and is not sprayed
with pesticides (Estades and Aguirre
2006, p. 6). The grove is surrounded by
˜
Geoffroea decorticans (chanares;
Chilean Palo Verde) and citrus trees,
which both flower in September
(Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). The
location of the observed nests suggests
to Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 6) that
the Chilean woodstar does not place its
nest at the minimum distance from the
food source, as would be expected
according to the optimal foraging
theory. Instead, it appears that Chilean
woodstars build their nest at an
intermediate distance of 164 ft (50 m)
from nectar sources (flowers) (Estades
and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). Estades and
Aguirre (2006, p. 6) indicate that this
may be a strategy the Chilean woodstar
employs to avoid the presence of other
hummingbirds around their nest. In
addition, Estades and Aguirre (2006, p.
6) report that it appears the quality of
this particular olive grove is enhanced
by the nearby presence of sheep, whose
wool is used by the Chilean woodstar to
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build its nest. As a result of this study,
Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 6) state
that the reproductive habitat of the
Chilean woodstar requires an adequate
combination of nesting sites (olive and
mango trees) and food sources (small
flowers).
Historical Range and Distribution
Historical evidence suggests that
although the Chilean woodstar had a
limited distribution, it was locally
abundant (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p.
2). However, beginning in the 1970s, the
frequency of observations of this species
appears to have declined recently to
levels considered alarming by some
ornithologists (Estades and Aguirre
2006, p. 2).
Current Range and Distribution
The Chilean woodstar is endemic to a
few river valleys near the Pacific coast
from Tacna, Peru, to northern
Antofagasta, Chile (Collar et al. 1992, p.
530; del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674;
Johnson 1967, p. 121). This area lies at
the northern edge of the Atacama
Desert, one of the driest places on Earth
(Collar et al. 1992, p. 530). Current
populations are only known to occur in
the Vitor and Azapa valleys, in the
Arica Department in extreme northern
Chile (Estades et al. 2007, p. 168). There
have been a few observations of this
species in the town of Tacna, Peru (near
the border of Chile), but these
observations have been infrequent
(Collar et al. 1992, p. 530) and there
have been no records of the species
there in the last 20 years (Jaramillo
2003, as cited in Estades et al. 2007, p.
164). At least some individuals appear
to move seasonally to higher elevations
to exploit seasonal food resources
˚
(Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 296).
Estades et al. (2007, p. 170) hypothesize
that these higher elevation valleys may
provide some connectivity between the
lower elevation valleys, otherwise
isolated by the unvegetated expanses of
the Atacama Desert.
In 1967, Johnson (1967, p. 121)
described the Chilean woodstar as a
‘‘species of extremely limited range and
very small total population.’’ However,
Johnson (1967, p. 121) also stated that
it was the most abundant hummingbird
in the Azapa Valley, where he and
others counted ‘‘over a hundred
hovering like a swarm of bees.’’ In
September 2003, using fixed-radius
point counts and sampling an area
larger than the presumed range, Estades
et al. (2007, pp. 168–169) found the
Chilean woodstar to be restricted to the
Azapa and Vitor valleys of northern
Chile, and to be the rarest hummingbird
in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007,
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p. 170). Despite repeated searches, it
was not found in the Lluta Valley
(Estades et al. 2007, p. 168), where it
was previously reported to breed
˚
(Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). A
further study in the Azapa and Vitor
valleys in 2006 found Chilean
woodstars nesting in only one location,
a site in the Chaca area of the Vitor
Valley that is less than 2.5 ac (1 ha) in
size (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6).
However, the species may be breeding
in the Azapa valley, since survey work
there in the past 4 years has found a few
stable territories and detected a few
juveniles (Estades 2009). Hummingbird
nests are difficult to find and further
survey work is needed to verify
breeding in this area.
Population Estimates
In September 2003, the Chilean
woodstar population was estimated to
be 1,539 individuals (929–2,287; 90
percent confidence interval (CI)), with
over 70 percent of the population found
in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007,
p. 168). In April 2004, the population
was estimated to be 758 individuals
(399–1,173; 90 percent CI), again with
over 70 percent of the population found
in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007,
p. 168). Estades et al. (2007, p. 170)
warn against interpreting their results as
a population crash from 2003 to 2004,
because the 2004 surveys were
conducted in April, when food
resources and populations were more
dispersed (Estades et al. 2007, p. 170).
Further population estimates were
conducted by Estades (2007, in litt.) in
2006 and 2007. In 2007, the population
of Chilean woodstars was estimated to
be 1,256 individuals (694 in the Azapa
Valley and 562 in the Vitor Valley)
(Estades 2007, in litt.). Estades (2007, in
litt.) reports that, overall, the species
declined between 2003 and 2007, even
though the Chilean woodstar population
did increase between 2006 and 2007.
Estades (2007, in litt.) attributes the
increase in the population of the species
between 2006 and 2007 to an increase
in the number of individuals in the
Vitor Valley, while the number of
Chilean woodstars in the Azapa Valley
declined.
Conservation Status
The Chilean woodstar is listed as an
‘‘endangered and rare’’ species in Chile
under Decree No. 151—Classification of
Wild Species According to Their
Conservation Status (ECOLEX 2007).
The species is considered to be
‘‘Endangered’’ by IUCN, due to its very
small range, with all viable populations
apparently confined to remnant habitat
patches in two desert river valleys (BLI
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2008). These valleys are heavily
cultivated, and the extent, area, and
quality of suitable habitat are likely
declining (BLI 2008).
Summary of Factors Affecting the
Chilean Woodstar
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A. The Present or Threatened
Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or
Range
The historical range of the Chilean
woodstar has been severely altered with
extensive planting of olive and citrus
groves in the valleys of northern Chile
and southern Peru (del Hoyo et al. 1999,
p. 674). The native food plants of the
species may have been drastically
reduced when habitat for the species
was converted to agriculture; now the
species depends largely on introduced
garden flowers as nectar sources (del
Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674). Although the
Chilean woodstar is able to incorporate
introduced plant species into its diet,
the loss of some native species likely
continues to be a limiting factor for the
species (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). As
an example, Estades et al. (2007, p. 172)
report that one of the most likely
reasons for the disappearance of the
Chilean woodstar from the Lluta Valley
˜
is the cutting of almost all the chanares
(Geoffroea decorticans), which is
considered one of the most important
˜
food sources for the species. Chanares
are cleared by farmers who consider it
an undesirable plant and an attractant to
mice (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172).
In a study to estimate the population
of the Chilean woodstar, Estades (2007,
in litt.) found a decrease in the
population of the Chilean woodstar in
the Azapa Valley between 2006 and
2007. Estades (2007, in litt.) associates
this decline with the substantial
increase in agricultural development
related to the cultivation of tomatoes in
the Azapa Valley in recent years.
Chilean woodstars appear to rely
primarily on introduced olive trees for
nesting (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). The
species has most likely been forced to
use orchards as nesting sites due to the
paucity of native trees (Estades et al.
2007, p. 172). Although olive trees are
not exposed to as many pesticides as
other fruit trees in the region, the use of
high-pressure spraying (of water) to
control mold threatens the viability of
nests and their contents in some areas
(Estades 2009; Estades et al. 2007, p.
172). Because of the small size of the
remaining population (see Factor E), the
loss of even a few nests annually is a
threat to the continued existence of the
species.
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Summary of Factor A
As a result of extensive agriculture in
the river valleys where the Chilean
woodstar occurs, most of its natural
habitat is disappearing, requiring the
species to rely mainly on artificial
sources for feeding and nesting.
Although the species is able to use
introduced plants, the loss of important
˜
native food plants, such as chanares, is
most likely a limiting factor for the
Chilean woodstar. Due to the scarcity of
native trees, the species seems to rely
heavily on introduced olive trees for
nesting. However, management
practices currently used in olive groves
adversely impact the species and its
nests. Therefore, we find that habitat
destruction is a threat to the continued
existence of the Chilean woodstar
throughout its range.
B. Overutilization for Commercial,
Recreational, Scientific, or Educational
Purposes
In 1987, the Chilean woodstar was
listed in CITES Appendix II, which
includes species that are not necessarily
threatened with extinction, but may
become so unless trade is subject to
strict regulation to avoid utilization
incompatible with the species’ survival.
International trade in specimens of
Appendix-II species is authorized
through permits or certificates under
certain circumstances, including
verification that trade will not be
detrimental to the survival of the
species in the wild and that the
specimen was legally acquired (UNEP–
WCMC 2008a).
Since its listing in 1987, there have
been no CITES-permitted international
transactions in the Chilean woodstar
(Caldwell 2008, in litt.). Therefore, we
believe that international trade is not a
factor influencing the species’ status in
the wild. In addition, we are unaware of
any other information currently
available that indicates that hunting or
overutilization of the Chilean woodstar
for commercial, recreation, scientific, or
education purposes has ever occurred.
As such, we do not consider this factor
to be a threat to the species.
C. Disease or Predation
We are not aware of any scientific or
commercial information that indicate
disease or predation poses a threat to
this species. As a result, we are not
considering disease or predation to be a
contributing factor to the continued
existence of the Chilean woodstar.
D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory
Mechanisms
The Chilean woodstar is listed as an
‘‘endangered and rare’’ species in Chile
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under Decree No. 151—Classification of
Wild Species According to Their
Conservation Status (ECOLEX 2007). In
2006, it was also designated as a
national monument under Decree No.
2—Declaring National Monuments of
the Wild Fauna Huemul, Long-tailed
Chinchilla, Short-tailed Chinchilla,
Andean Condor, Chilean Woodstar, and
Juan Fernandez Firecrown—which
prohibits all hunting and capture of
these species (ECOLEX 2006). However,
this regulation is not necessary to
reduce an existing threat to the Chilean
woodstar because we do not consider
hunting or collection (Factor B) to be a
threat to the species.
The Chilean woodstar is listed in
Appendix II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC
2008b). CITES is an international treaty
among 175 nations, including Chile,
Peru, and the United States, that entered
into force in 1975 (UNEP–WCMC
2008a). Under this treaty, countries
work together to ensure that
international trade in animal and plant
species is not detrimental to the survival
of wild populations by regulating the
import, export, re-export, and
introduction from the sea of CITESlisted animal and plant species (USFWS
2008). As discussed under Factor B, we
do not consider international trade to be
a threat to the Chilean woodstar.
Therefore, this international treaty does
not reduce any current threats to the
species. Any international trade that
occurs in the future would be effectively
regulated under CITES.
We are not aware of any regulatory
mechanisms that effectively limit or
restrict habitat destruction, or highpressure spraying of olive trees with
water to reduce mold, two of the threats
to the Chilean woodstar (see Factor A).
As discussed under Factor E,
pesticides are also a threat to the
Chilean woodstar, and there are some
regulations that limit or ban certain
pesticides. For example, current
regulations in Chile prohibit the
importation, production, and
application of DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin,
Chlordane, and Heptachlor (Altieri and
Rojas 1999, p. 64). Despite such
regulations, large-scale use of pesticides
such as Parathion, Paraquat, Lindane,
and pentachlorophenol—all severely
restricted or even banned in Europe,
Japan, and the United States—continues
in Chile (Rozas 1995, as cited in Altieri
and Rojas 1999, p. 64). Furthermore,
international standards and quarantine
requirements, imposed by countries
importing Chilean fruits to limit
quarantined insects, have acted to
increase pesticide use in Chile (see
Factor E) (Altieri and Rojas 1999, p. 63).
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Summary of Factor D
We are not aware of any regulatory
mechanisms that effectively limit or
restrict habitat destruction, or highpressure spraying of olive trees with
water to reduce mold, two of the threats
to the Chilean woodstar. Although there
are some regulations in Chile that limit
or ban certain pesticides, other kinds of
pesticides are still widely used in Chile,
especially by fruit growers. Therefore,
we find that the existing regulatory
mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate
the current threats to the Chilean
woodstar throughout its range.
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E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors
Affecting the Continued Existence of the
Species
Pesticides: The use of Malathion,
Dimethoate, and other chemicals to
control the Mediterranean fruit fly
(Ceratitis capitata) in the 1960s and
early 1970s correlates with declines in
Chilean woodstar abundance (Estades et
al. 2007, pp. 171–172). Although
Malathion is only slightly to moderately
toxic to wild birds (Pascual 1994 and
George et al. 1995, as cited in Estades
et al. 2007, p. 171), the systemic
insecticide Dimethoate is very toxic and
is known to contaminate the nectar of
flowers (Baker et al. 1980, as cited in
Estades et al. 2007, p. 171). The Chilean
government program to eradicate the
Mediterranean fruit fly in the AricaAzapa area has been reduced since the
1970s (Olalquiaga and Lobos 1993, as
cited in Estades et al. 2007, p. 171),
which likely has reduced this threat to
Chilean woodstar (Estades et al. 2007, p.
171). Although the governmental
pesticide applications for the
eradication of the Mediterranean fruit
fly may be declining, private farmers
still rely on a heavy use of highly toxic
chemicals to keep their crops pest-free
(Salazar and Araya 2001, as cited in
Estades et al. 2007, p. 171), and their
use shows no signs of decline (Estades
et al. 2007, p. 172).
As a result of international standards
and quarantine requirements imposed
by countries importing Chilean fruits,
there is an overwhelming incentive for
farmers to continue to extensively use
chemical pest control (Altieri and Rojas
1999, p. 63). If the inspection of a
shipment of Chilean fruits detects just
one specimen of a quarantined insect
pest, the result is the automatic rejection
of the entire shipment of fruit (Altieri
and Rojas 1999, p. 63). Therefore,
Chilean fruit growers intensively spray
their crops to completely eliminate all
pests in order to avoid the risk of
shipment rejection and its associated
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economic losses (Altieri and Rojas 1999,
p. 63).
Estades et al. (2007, p. 170) found that
significant amounts of pesticides are
still being used, particularly in the
Azapa Valley, and there is at least one
recent case where the application of
insecticides at a plant nursery resulted
in the death of a female Chilean
woodstar. Furthermore, in a study to
estimate the population of the Chilean
woodstar, Estades (2007, in litt.) found
a decrease in the population of the
species in the Azapa Valley between
2006 and 2007. Estades (2007, in litt.)
associates this decline with the
substantial increase in agricultural
development, related to the cultivation
of tomatoes, in the Azapa Valley in
recent years. The cultivation of tomatoes
in this area of Chile requires a high
demand of pesticides, and thus
represents a growing threat to the
Chilean woodstar (Estades 2007, in litt.).
Competition from the Peruvian
sheartail: Estades et al. (2007, p. 172)
hypothesized that the Peruvian sheartail
(Thaumastura cora), which has
experienced rapid population increases
within the range of the Chilean
woodstar, is a strong competitor for food
or space because: (1) These species have
morphological similarities which, in
hummingbirds, indicates they may
require similar food resources; (2) there
appears to be spatial segregation
between the species; and (3)
antagonistic interactions have been
documented (Estades et al. 2007, p.
169). Because the sheartail is more
aggressive than the Chilean woodstar, it
is believed to displace the woodstar
within its range (Estades et al. 2007, pp.
169, 172). In Azapa, Peruvian sheartails
have occupied the lower parts of the
valley where there is a large supply of
flowers in residential areas year-round
(Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). Chilean
woodstars, on the other hand, are
primarily located in the middle part of
the valley where the dominant land use
is agriculture (Estades et al. 2007, p.
172). As a result, the Chilean woodstar
has a much higher risk of exposure to
pesticides (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172).
Because certain pesticides used within
the range of the Chilean woodstar are
known to cause mortality, increased
exposure to these pesticides increases
the species’ risk of population decline
and extinction.
In a study to estimate the population
of the Chilean woodstar, Estades (2007,
in litt.) found an increase in the
population of the species in the Vitor
Valley (Chaca-Codpa area) between
2006 and 2007. Estades (2007, in litt.)
suggests that one of the reasons for the
population increase in the Vitor Valley
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during this time period was due to the
fact that no Peruvian sheartails were
observed in Chaca. This observation
supports the theory that Peruvian
sheartails are a competitor of the
Chilean woodstar (Estades et al. 2007,
pp. 163, 172). In addition, the
abundance of Chilean woodstar nests
observed in the species’ only known
breeding site (in the Chaca area of the
Vitor Valley) appears to be related to the
absence of Peruvian sheartails in this
location (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p.
6). Furthermore, the high abundance of
Peruvian sheartails at Azapa could
explain the absence of nesting by the
Chilean woodstar at otherwise
appropriate sites, such as the Azapa
Valley (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6).
During the 2008 breeding season,
several Peruvian sheartails were
observed at at least two Chilean
woodstar nests in the Chaca area, which
is of concern since this area has been
the primary breeding area for the
woodstar (Estades 2009).
Reproduction: Another study in the
Azapa and Vitor valleys in 2006 found
Chilean woodstars nesting in only one
location, a site in the Chaca area of the
Vitor Valley that is less than 2.5 ac (1
ha) in size (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p.
6). Of the 19 nests that were monitored,
12 failed; the cause of these nest failures
is unknown (Estades and Aguirre 2006,
p. 8). The daily nest failure rate was
3.21 percent, which is higher than has
been observed in other hummingbird
species (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8).
The probability of nest success was 23.8
percent, which is also higher than has
been observed for other hummingbird
species (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8).
Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 8) note
that the method used to calculate both
of these values for other hummingbirds
(by Baltosser 1986, as cited in Estades
and Aguirre 2006, p. 8) is not exactly
the same as the method used in this
study. Although the values of
reproductive success are within normal
range, the high percentage of nest
failures is troubling for a species that
has such a small population size
(Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8).
The loss of hatchlings, probably due
to a lack of space in the nest itself, also
indicates that recruitment of the Chilean
woodstar is low (Estades and Aguirre
2006, pp. 8, 10). If you take into account
˜
that the flowering period for chanares
and citrus is relatively short (a
maximum of two months), the
possibility of Chilean woodstars
producing a second clutch in the spring
is almost zero (Estades and Aguirre
2006, p. 10). Without a second nesting
period, the Chilean woodstar is not able
to compensate for a loss of its first, and
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most likely only, clutch (Estades and
Aguirre 2006, p. 10). All data suggest
that the recruitment capability of the
Chilean woodstar is low and that,
currently, the majority of reproduction
is taking place only in the Vitor Valley
(Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 10).
Small Population Size and Restricted
Range: The Chilean woodstar has
experienced a population decline since
the 1960s and now consists of less than
2,000 individuals distributed within
two valleys (Estades et al. 2007, p. 170).
Species tend to have a higher risk of
extinction if they occupy a small
geographic range, occur at low density,
occupy a high trophic level, and exhibit
low reproductive rates (Purvis et al.
2000, p. 1949). Small populations are
more affected by demographic
stochasticity, local catastrophes, and
inbreeding (Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757,
773–775). The small, declining
population makes the species
vulnerable to loss of genetic variation
due to inbreeding depression and
genetic drift. This, in turn, compromises
a species’ ability to adapt genetically to
changing environments (Frankham
1996, p. 1507) and reduces fitness, and
increases extinction risk (Reed and
Frankham 2003, pp. 233–234).
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Summary of Factor E
Other natural or manmade factors
affecting the continued existence of the
Chilean woodstar include extensive use
of pesticides by farmers and
competition from the Peruvian sheartail.
These threats have been associated with
the decline in the population of the
species and the lack of nest sites in the
Azapa Valley. Because the Chilean
woodstar is currently breeding in only
one site (in the Chaca area of the Vitor
Valley) and has a low recruitment rate,
restricted range, and a small population
size, any threats to the species are
further magnified. Therefore, we find
that other natural or manmade factors
are a threat to the continued existence
of the Chilean woodstar throughout its
range.
Status Determination for the Chilean
Woodstar
We have carefully assessed the best
available scientific and commercial
information regarding the past, present,
and potential future threats faced by the
Chilean woodstar. The species is
currently at risk throughout all of its
range due to a number of immediate and
ongoing threats. The Chilean woodstar
is restricted to two river valleys, where
there has been extensive modification of
its primary habitat. It is threatened by
agricultural practices, in particular the
use of pesticides and, to a lesser extent,
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high-pressure spraying of olive trees to
remove mold, as well as competition
from the more aggressive Peruvian
sheartail. The magnitude of these threats
is exacerbated by the species’ restricted
range, only one known breeding site,
low recruitment rate, and extremely
small population size. An insect
outbreak causing increased use of toxic
pesticides in agricultural fields, a series
of catastrophic events, or other
detrimental interactions between
environmental and demographic factors
could result in the rapid extinction of
the Chilean woodstar.
Section 3 of the Act defines an
‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species
which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as
‘‘any species which is likely to become
an endangered species within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range.’’ Based
on the immediate and ongoing
significant threats to the Chilean
woodstar throughout its entire range, as
described above, we determine that the
Chilean woodstar is in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range.
Therefore, on the basis of the best
available scientific and commercial
information, we are listing the Chilean
woodstar as an endangered species
throughout all of its range.
III. St. Lucia forest thrush
(Cichlhermina lherminieri
sanctaeluciae)
Species Description
The St. Lucia forest thrush
(Cichlhermina lherminieri
sanctaeluciae) (also referred to as
‘‘thrush’’) is a subspecies of the forest
thrush (C. lherminieri) in the family
Turdidae. It is a medium-sized bird,
approximately 10 inches (in) (25 to 27
centimeters (cm)) in length (BLI 2000).
This subspecies has all dark upperparts;
is brownish below with white spots on
the breast, flanks, and upper belly; and
has a white lower belly. It has yellow
legs and bill, and bare skin around the
eye (BLI 2000).
Taxonomy
This subspecies was first
taxonomically described by P. L. Sclater
in 1880 (del Hoyo et al. 2005, p. 681).
Habitat and Life History
The St. Lucia forest thrush occupies
mid- and high-altitude primary and
secondary moist forest habitat (Keith
1997, p. 105). The thrush feeds on
insects and berries from ground level to
the forest canopy (del Hoyo et al. 2005,
p. 681; Raffaelle 1998, p. 381). It
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previously gathered in large numbers in
autumn to feed on berries (del Hoyo et
al. 2005, p. 681). The thrush breeds in
April and May and builds a cup-shaped
nest placed not far above the ground in
a bush or tree (del Hoyo et al. 2005, p.
681; Raffaelle 1998, p. 381). Clutch size
ranges from two to three eggs, which are
blue-green in color (del Hoyo et al.
2005, p. 681).
Historical Range and Distribution
Although we are unaware of any
specific information on the historical
range and distribution of the St. Lucia
forest thrush, we assume that this
subspecies has always been found only
on the island of St. Lucia.
Current Range and Distribution
The entire species of forest thrush is
known from Montserrat, Guadeloupe,
Dominica, and St. Lucia. The St. Lucia
forest thrush is endemic to the island of
St. Lucia in the West Indies (del Hoyo
et al. 2005, p. 681). St. Lucia is an island
in the Caribbean, between the Caribbean
Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, and
is 238 square miles (m2) (616 square
kilometers (km2)) in area (CIA World
Factbook 2008).
Population Estimates
This subspecies was considered
numerous in the late 1800s (Semper
1872, as cited in Keith 1997, p. 105),
although we could find no historical
accounts of population size of this
subspecies. The current population
status of the thrush is unknown, but
recent sightings of this subspecies are
rare, with only five confirmed sightings
on the island over the last few years
(John 2009; Dornelly 2007, in litt.).
These sightings consist of one bird in
the St. Lucia Nature Reserve near the
community of De Chassin in the north
part of the island, and four individuals
along the De Cartiers Trail in the
Quilesse Forest Reserve on the south
part of the island (Dornelly 2007, in
litt.). A survey was conducted in 2007
to try to estimate the populations of
various rare birds on the island of St.
Lucia, including the thrush (Dornelly
2007, in litt.). However, no thrushes
were observed during the study period
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.).
Conservation Status
The entire species of forest thrush
(Cichlhermina lherminieri) is classified
as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by IUCN, due to humaninduced deforestation and introduced
predators (BLI 2008b).
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Summary of Factors Affecting the St.
Lucia Forest Thrush
A. The Present or Threatened
Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or
Range
The habitat of the St. Lucia forest
thrush consists of mid- and highaltitude primary and secondary moist
forests (Keith 1997, p. 105). Consistent
with previous accounts, the most recent
sightings of the thrush were within this
mid- to high-elevation moist forest
habitat, where in June and August of
2007, respectively, St. Lucia Forestry
Department staff sighted four birds in
one location along the Des Cartiers Trail
in the south of the island, and one bird
in De Chassin in the north of the island
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.).
As of 2007, natural forest occupied
approximately 29,870 ac (12,088 ha) on
the island of St. Lucia, 77 percent of
which (23,000 ac (9,308 ha)) was within
forest reserves and 23 percent (6,870 ac
(2,780 ha)) was on private lands (John
2009; Joint Annual Report (JAR) 2004,
p. 42). The St. Lucia Department of
Forestry considers habitat quality
within the Forest Reserves to be high,
but considers the habitat quality on
private lands to be ‘‘less,’’ since the
Department has little control over
management of these private lands and
the forest cover can be removed for
alternate land use or development
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.; John 2009). In
2004, 633 ac (256 ha) of plantation
forest existed within the forest reserves,
consisting of three main timber tree
species, and an additional 615 ac (249
ha) of plantation forest existed on
private lands (JAR 2004, p. 42), but
there is no information to suggest that
the thrush utilizes plantation forest
habitat.
Historically, St. Lucia’s policy that
allowed open access to ‘‘Common
Property resources,’’ combined with the
country’s high demand for agricultural
land, led to large- scale deforestation
(GOSL 1993, as cited in John 2000, p. 3),
which reduced the thrush’s habitat,
resulting in a rapid population decline
of this subspecies (IUCN 2008). The
widespread deforestation that continues
to this day suggests that population
numbers continue to decline as a result
of this impact. A potential impact of
habitat destruction is exemplified by the
Grand Cayman thrush (Turdus ravidus),
a species closely related to the St. Lucia
forest thrush, which went extinct as its
habitat on the island was progressively
cleared (Johnston 1969, as cited in BLI
2008a).
In the 1980s, deforestation on St.
Lucia was estimated at 1.9 percent per
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year due to banana cultivation.
Although the banana industry has
faltered since that time (GOSL 1993, as
cited in John 2000, p. 3), according to
the World Bank (2005, p. 1), farmers in
St. Lucia have continued to clear forests
for cultivation, moving to higher and
steeper land, primarily on private land.
The government has encouraged this
deforestation by constructing roads into
these remote areas, which further
reduces forest lands. Degradation of the
hillside environment puts the more
productive lowlands at risk, and
hurricanes and tropical storms
accelerate the degradation process
(World Bank 2005, p. 1).
As of 2004, 28.5 percent of the land
on St. Lucia was used for ‘‘intensive
farming,’’ and 26.3 percent was for
‘‘mixed’’ use purposes (JAR 2004, p. 41).
According to St. Lucia’s 2007 Economic
and Social Review (p. 3), although the
banana industry was negatively
impacted by the passage of Hurricane
Dean in August, the overall outturn in
agriculture more than compensated for
the banana decline, with a 7.6 percent
increase in ‘‘nontraditional crops.’’ This
is a strong indication that increasing
agriculture continues to put pressure on
St. Lucia’s forest resources. Aside from
agriculture, in the 21st century,
construction activities related to tourism
(hotels and golf courses) and residential
housing with accompanying access road
networks has been a leading cause of
deforestation on St. Lucia, particularly
on private land (John 2009; John 2000,
pp. 3, 4).
Even within St. Lucia’s Forest
Reserves, the land is not protected to
such an extent that it is preserved in its
natural condition. According to St.
Lucia’s ‘‘Forest, Soil, and Water
Conservation Ordinance 1946/1983,’’
with permission of the Forestry
Department, one may ‘‘injure, cut, fell,
convert, remove, or harvest any tree or
parts thereof.’’ Although it is illegal to
occupy Forest Reserves for the purposes
of cultivation, squatting, or pasturing
livestock (St. Lucia Forestry Department
n.d.), enforcement of these activities is
questionable, given that as of the year
2000, squatters occupied 247 ac (100 ha)
of area within forest reserves (John
2000, p. 3). These squatters are
considered to be under the ‘‘taungya’’
forest mangagement system and the land
they occupy remains under the
government control as Forest Reserve
(John 2009). As of the year 2000, 4.5
miles (7.2 km) of roads existed within
the forest reserves, providing access to
forest resources within the reserves.
Typical uses of forest resources include
fuelwood collection for heating and
cooking purposes, as well as traditional
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use of non-wood forest products.
Certain species of forest trees are used
for production of brooms, canoes, and
incense, while the bark of other tree
species are used to produce fermented
drinks, and liannes are used in the craft
industry (John 2000, pp. 6, 7). Removal
of these forest products reduces either
the quality or the availability of nesting,
feeding, and breeding habitat of the
thrush, thereby potentially reducing
population numbers and the
reproductive success of breeding birds.
Summary of Factor A
Both historical and current
information suggests that this species is
restricted to natural forests on the
island, which, based on recent data,
have been reduced to approximately
29,870 ac (12,088 ha) on the island. A
large percentage of the remaining
natural forest that occurs on private
lands in St. Lucia (23 percent) is subject
to ongoing loss from timber harvest,
construction activities related to
residential housing and tourism, road
development, and to a lesser extent,
conversion of forest lands to agriculture.
These ongoing activities result in
destruction of the limited habitat
available for the thrush, which has
historically been attributed to a rapid
decline in this subspecies’ population
numbers. Although to a lesser extent
than on private lands, the forests within
St. Lucia’s forest reserves (77 percent of
the remaining forest) are also subject to
destruction and modification from
activities such as timber removal,
fuelwood gathering, and removal of
non-wood forest products for traditional
use, activities which destroy and
degrade the thrush’s habitat. Therefore,
we find that the ongoing destruction
and modification of the thrush’s habitat
is a threat to the continued existence of
the St. Lucia forest thrush throughout its
range.
B. Overutilization for Commercial,
Recreational, Scientific, or Educational
Purposes
We are not aware of any scientific or
commercial information that indicates
overutilization of the St. Lucia forest
thrush for commercial, recreational,
scientific, or educational purposes
currently poses a threat to this
subspecies. As a result, we are not
considering overutilization to be a
contributing factor to the continued
existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush.
C. Disease or Predation
Disease: We are not aware of any
scientific or commercial information
that indicates that disease poses a threat
to this subspecies. As a result, we are
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not considering disease to be a
contributing factor to the continued
existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush.
Predation: The St. Lucia forest thrush
is suspected to be impacted by
predation from an introduced mongoose
(Raffaelle et al. 1998, p. 381). The Asian
mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was
introduced to the island of St. Lucia in
the early 1900s (Hoagland et al. 1989, p.
624) and is considered an invasive
species. Mongoose have been
introduced to many island chains for
the purpose of controlling small
rodents; however, their diet is not
restricted to rodents; mongoose are
known to eat birds as well. Morley and
Winder (2007, p. 1) found that in the
Fiji islands, some bird species were
primarily associated with those islands
that were free of mongoose. Any effects
of mongoose introduction detected,
however, were historical, as mongoose
had been on these islands for at least 20
years prior to their study. Bird
assemblages on islands where mongoose
had been introduced were (1)
dominated by introduced bird species
that are relatively unaffected by
predation, or (2) native arboreal species
that avoid predation, as mongoose rarely
venture up into the forest canopy. Some
researchers have suggested that groundnesting bird populations have
established a predator-prey equilibrium
with mongooses in the Caribbean
(Westermann 1953, as cited in Hays and
Conant 2006, p. 7). Although the thrush
is not known as a ground nesting bird,
it is reported to nest in shrubs and trees
near the forest floor. On St. Lucia, the
mongoose and other introduced
predators, such as birds and cats, have
contributed to the decline of another
native bird species, the White-breasted
thrasher (Ramphocinclus brachurus)
(Collar et al. 1992, p. 824). The degree
to which mongoose are responsible for
the decline of bird species is often hard
to assess, because of exacerbating factors
such as the introduction of other
species, such as rats and cats, which
often have impacts to bird populations
as well. Therefore, we do not have
enough information to assess whether
predation by an introduced mongoose is
a significant threat to the St. Lucia forest
thrush. Other possible predators include
the St. Lucia boa constrictor (Constrictor
constrictor orophias), Fer de Lance
(Bothrops caribbaeus), opossum
(Didelphis marsupialis) and rat (Rattus
rattus) but we do not have enough
information to assess whether predation
by these species is a significant threat
(John 2009).
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Summary of Factor C
We are not aware of any scientific or
commercial information that indicate
that disease or predation currently poses
a threat to this subspecies. Although the
St. Lucia forest thrush is thought to be
impacted by predation from an
introduced mongoose, we do not have
any data to show that mongoose
predation is a current threat to the
thrush. As a result, we are not
considering disease or predation to be a
contributing factor to the continued
existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush.
D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory
Mechanisms
The St. Lucia forest thrush is a
‘‘protected wildlife’’ species under
Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection
Act (WPA) of 1980, which has
prohibited hunting of this subspecies
since 1980 (ECOLEX n.d.(b)). In
addition, the WPA prohibits taking,
damaging or destroying of eggs or
young, or the damage of a nest of
‘‘protected wildlife’’ species (ECOLEX
n.d.(b)). Where habitat for this species
occurs within Forest Reserves or
Protected Forests, it is protected from
harvest without approval by the
Forestry Department under the Forest,
Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance
Act of 1946, amended in 1983 (ECOLEX
n.d.(a)). However, we do not consider
overutilization (Factor B) to be a current
threat to the St. Lucia forest thrush, so
these laws do not address any of the
threats to this subspecies.
The Forest, Soil and Water
Conservation Ordinance Act of 1946,
amended in 1983, authorizes the St.
Lucia Minister of Agriculture to
establish Forest Reserves on government
land and Protected Forests on private
lands (John 2000, p. 7). Habitat in Forest
Reserves and Protected Forests is
conserved primarily for the purpose of
protecting watershed processes and
preventing soil erosion. No legal
commercial timber harvest occurs on
these lands. However, fuelwood
collecting, removal of non-wood forest
products for traditional use, and timber
removal (with permission of the
Forestry Department) still occur in some
Forest Reserves. Where suitable habitat
for the thrush exists in Forest Reserves,
it is assumed to be of high quality
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.). However, small
illegal homesteads occur on
approximately 247 ac (100 ha) of the
Forest Reserves, and residents of these
homesteads utilize the timber and other
forest resources, such as fuelwood, in
the surrounding areas (John 2000, p. 3).
Timber harvest on private lands other
than Protected Forests is not regulated
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50839
in St. Lucia. As discussed above under
Factor A, deforestation on private lands
as a result of timber harvest, conversion
of forest lands to agriculture,
construction activities related to the
tourism industry and residential
development, and road development is
ongoing. It is not known how much of
the private natural forest habitat on the
island is occupied by the St. Lucia forest
thrush. However, based on the localities
of the few recent confirmed sightings of
this subspecies, and the proportion (23
percent) of natural forest that occurs on
private lands, the St. Lucia forest thrush
likely inhabits at least some of the
private lands on the island.
Summary of Factor D
St. Lucia has developed numerous
laws and regulations to manage wildlife
and forest resources on the island.
However, these laws do not adequately
protect the habitat of the St. Lucia forest
thrush from destruction or modification.
Suitable thrush habitat within Forest
Reserves is provided some level of
protection from existing laws designed
to protect watershed processes and
prevent soil erosion. However, these
laws do not adequately protect the
habitat of this subspecies because they
allow noncommercial uses of forest
resources (including nest trees) to
continue. Natural forest habitat on
private lands is unregulated, and
although the rate of habitat destruction
and modification has likely decreased
since the 1980s, conversion of forest
land to agriculture and timber harvest
still continue. As a result of the lack of
regulatory protection of the natural
forest habitats on private lands and the
limited protection of Forest Reserves,
we find that the existing regulatory
mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate
the current threats to the St. Lucia forest
thrush throughout its range.
E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors
Affecting the Continued Existence of the
Species
Bare-eyed Robin: Competition with
the bare-eyed robin (Turdus nudigenis),
which colonized the island in the 1950s,
has been identified as a factor impacting
this subspecies (Raffaelle et al. 1998, p.
381). However, we do not have enough
information to assess whether
competition with the bare-eyed robin is
a significant threat to the St. Lucia forest
thrush.
Shiny Cowbird: Brood parasitism by
the shiny cowbird (Molothrus
bonarientsis), which colonized the
island in 1931, is also suspected as a
factor impacting this subspecies
(Raffaelle et al. 1998, p. 381). The shiny
cowbird is a known ‘‘brood parasite’’
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(i.e., they lay their eggs in the nests of
other birds and do not provide any
parental care for their own offspring).
When the eggs of the brood parasite
hatch, these chicks often push out the
eggs or chicks of the host birds and are
raised by the host species. Parental care
that the host birds provide to the young
parasites is care denied to their own
young. This often has a detrimental
effect on the reproductive success of the
hosts, reducing population growth. The
shiny cowbird is an extreme host
generalist; its eggs have been found in
the nests of over 200 species of birds
(Friedmann and Kiff 1985 and Mason
1986, as cited in Cruz et al. 1989, p.
524). Shiny cowbirds are known to
parasitize other bird species nests on St.
Lucia (Cruz et al. 1989, p. 527). Many
of the documented host species have not
evolved effective defense or counterdefense mechanisms during the 70+
years the cowbird has occupied the
island (Post et al. 1990, p. 461).
Although brood parasitism by the shiny
cowbird has the potential to impact the
thrush, we could find no documented
cases of brood parasitism on the St.
Lucia forest thrush.
Small Population Size: The presumed
small size of the St. Lucia forest thrush
population, based on only five
confirmed sightings of the subspecies in
the last few years (John 2009; Dornelly
2007, in litt.), makes this subspecies
vulnerable to any of several risks,
including inbreeding depression, loss of
genetic variation, and accumulation of
new mutations. Inbreeding can have
individual or population-level
consequences either by increasing the
phenotypic expression (the outward
appearance or observable structure,
function or behavior of a living
organism) of recessive, deleterious
alleles or by reducing the overall fitness
of individuals in the population
(Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987,
p. 231; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Small,
isolated populations of wildlife species
are also susceptible to demographic
problems (Shaffer 1981, p. 131), which
may include reduced reproductive
success of individuals and chance
disequilibrium of sex ratios. Once a
population is reduced below a certain
number of individuals, it tends to
rapidly decline towards extinction
(Franklin 1980, pp. 147–148; Gilpin and
´
Soule 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp.
´
64–65; Soule 1987, p. 181).
A general approximation of minimum
viable population size is the 50/500 rule
´
(Shaffer 1981, p. 133; Soule 1980, pp.
160–162). This rule states that an
effective population (Ne) of 50
individuals is the minimum size
required to avoid imminent risks from
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inbreeding. Ne represents the number of
animals in a population that actually
contribute to reproduction, and is often
much smaller than the census, or total
number of individuals in the population
(N). Furthermore, the rule states that the
long-term fitness of a population
requires an Ne of at least 500
individuals, so that it will not lose its
genetic diversity over time and will
maintain an enhanced capacity to adapt
to changing conditions. Therefore, an
analysis of the fitness of this population
would be a good indicator of the
subspecies’ overall survivability.
Although the current population
status of the St. Lucia forest thrush is
unknown, we presume the population
of the thrush is small, since recent
sightings of this subspecies are rare,
with only five confirmed sightings on
the island over the last few years
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.). Even though a
survey was conducted in 2007 to try to
estimate the populations of various rare
birds on the island of St. Lucia
including the thrush, no thrushes were
observed during the study period
(Dornelly 2007, in litt.). As a result, we
presume the size of the St. Lucia forest
thrush population falls below the
minimum effective population size
required to avoid risks from inbreeding
(Ne = 50 individuals). We also presume
the population size of this subspecies
falls below the upper threshold (Ne =
500 individuals) required for long-term
fitness of a population that will not lose
its genetic diversity over time and will
maintain an enhanced capacity to adapt
to changing conditions. As such, we
currently consider the St. Lucia forest
thrush to be at risk due to lack of nearand long-term viability.
Stochastic Events: The St. Lucia forest
thrush’s small population size makes
this subspecies particularly vulnerable
to the threat of adverse random,
naturally occurring events (e.g., volcanic
activity, tropical storms and hurricanes)
that could destroy individuals and their
habitat. St. Lucia is a geologically active
area, resulting in a significant risk of
catastrophic natural events. It is subject
to volcanic activity and hurricanes (CIA
World Factbook 2008).
St. Lucia is a volcanic island
(University of the West Indies Seismic
Research Centre n.d.(a)). Historically,
there have been no magmatic eruptions
on St. Lucia (i.e., eruptions involving
the explosive ejection of magma)
(University of the West Indies Seismic
Research Centre n.d.(b)). However, there
have been several minor phreatic
(steam) explosions in the Sulphur
Springs area of St. Lucia (University of
the West Indies Seismic Research Centre
n.d.(b)), ‘‘which spread a thin layer of
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cinders (ash) far and wide’’ (Lefort de
Latour 1787, as cited in University of
the West Indies Seismic Research Centre
n.d.(b)). The occurrence of occasional
swarms (a sequence of many
earthquakes striking in a relatively short
period of time and may last for days,
weeks, or even months) of shallow
earthquakes together with the vigorous
hot spring activity in southern St. Lucia
indicate that this area is still potentially
active and the island can therefore
expect volcanic eruptions in the future
(University of the West Indies Seismic
Research Centre n.d.(b)). On Montserrat,
where another subspecies of the forest
thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri
lawrencii) is found, volcanic activity
caused a reduction in the range of the
subspecies by two-thirds (in 1995–1997)
(G. Hilton in litt., as cited in BLI 2008b),
and in 2001, heavy ash falls resulted in
loss of habitat (Continga 2002, as cited
in BLI 2008b). Because of the similarity
in ecology, taxonomy, and habitat
requirements between the subspecies on
Montserrat and the St. Lucia forest
thrush, volcanic activity on St. Lucia
could have similar effects on the St.
Lucia forest thrush population.
Tropical storms and hurricanes occur
in the Caribbean, and can have severe
impacts on terrestrial ecosystems on
small islands. A primary impact of
forest habitats is the damage caused to
trees by high winds. Trees are often
blown over or sustain damage to trunks
and limbs. These types of impacts can
result in a major habitat loss to the St.
Lucia forest thrush. In addition, there is
often damage to soil productivity due to
landslides and excess soil erosion (John
2000, p. 19). St. Lucia has experienced
an increase in the number of hurricanes
and severe tropical storms over the last
30 years. After hurricane Allen in 1980,
at least 55 percent of all dominant tree
species on the island had broken
branches and many had lost large
portions of their crowns (Whitman
1980, as cited in John 2000, p. 18). The
indirect effects occur in the aftermath of
the storm when species experience loss
of food supplies and foraging substrates,
loss of nests, loss of nest sites (trees) and
roost sites (John 2000, p. 20). Moreover,
these indirect effects are likely to
increase their vulnerability to predation.
With hurricanes and tropical storms,
species are also exposed to the strong
winds which can displace individuals
off of the island into the surrounding
open ocean environment (John 2000, p.
20). Some of these displaced birds are
likely blown far out to sea, and may not
be able to make it back to land in their
weakened state. In general, the most
vulnerable terrestrial wildlife
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populations have a diet of nectar, fruit,
or seeds; nest, roost or forage on large
old trees; require a closed canopy forest;
have special microclimate requirements;
or live in habitat where the vegetation
has a slow recovery rate (John 2000, p.
20). Small populations with these traits
are at a greater risk to hurricane induced
extinction, particularly if they exist in
small isolated habitat fragments (John
2000, p. 20).
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Summary of Factor E
We presume the population of the St.
Lucia forest thrush is small since there
have only been five confirmed sightings
of the subspecies in the last few years.
The thrush’s small population size
makes this subspecies particularly
vulnerable to the threat of adverse
random, naturally occurring events (e.g.,
volcanic activity, tropical storms, and
hurricanes) that could destroy
individuals and their habitat. The
occurrence of occasional swarms of
shallow earthquakes, along with
vigorous hot spring activity, indicates
that St. Lucia could still be volcanically
active, and future volcanic eruptions are
expected. Tropical storms and
hurricanes are naturally occurring
events in the Caribbean; however, the
frequency of these events has increased
over the last 30 years. These highintensity events damage forest habitats,
which are currently very restricted
(approximately 29,870 ac (12,088 ha))
on the island due to timber harvest and
agricultural conversions. It can take
many years for forested areas to fully
recover from the damage caused by
tropical storms and hurricanes.
Therefore, we find that the subspecies’
presumed small population size and
restricted range due to deforestation,
and the increase in naturally occurring
events that damage the thrush’s habitat,
are a threat to the continued existence
of the St. Lucia forest thrush throughout
its range.
Status Determination for the St. Lucia
Forest Thrush
We have carefully assessed the best
available scientific and commercial
information regarding the past, present
and potential future threats faced by the
St. Lucia forest thrush. The subspecies
is currently at risk throughout all of its
range due to ongoing threats of habitat
destruction and modification (Factor A),
lack of near- and long-term viability
associated with the thrush’s presumed
small population size (Factor E), and
random, naturally occurring events such
as volcanic activity, tropical storms, and
hurricanes (Factor E).
The St. Lucia forest thrush is
presumed to be rare based on the
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limited availability of suitable habitat
and the fact that there have been only
a few confirmed sightings of this
subspecies over the last several years.
The primary factor impacting the
continued existence of the thrush is
habitat loss and degradation, as a result
of deforestation from timber harvest and
agricultural conversions. Although 77
percent of the natural forests remaining
on St. Lucia (as of 2004) is partially
protected through establishment of a
network of Forest Reserves, these forests
are still subject to destruction and
modification from activities such as
timber removal, fuelwood collecting,
and removal of non-wood forest
products for traditional use.
Approximately 23 percent of the natural
forest habitats on which this subspecies
depends occur on private lands.
Deforestation on private lands is an
ongoing threat to the St. Lucia forest
thrush, due to the lack of regulatory
protection of natural forests on private
lands and the continued loss of these
forests through timber harvest,
conversions to agriculture, construction
activities, and road development.
The island of St. Lucia is a
geologically active area, resulting in a
significant risk of catastrophic natural
events. The thrush’s presumed small
population size makes this subspecies
particularly vulnerable to the threat of
adverse random, naturally occurring
events such as volcanic activity, tropical
storms, and hurricanes that could
destroy individuals and their habitat.
Section 3 of the Act defines an
‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species
which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of
its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as
‘‘any species which is likely to become
an endangered species within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range.’’ Based
on the immediate and ongoing
significant threats to the St. Lucia forest
thrush throughout its entire range, as
described above, we determine that the
St. Lucia forest thrush is in danger of
extinction throughout all of its range.
Therefore, on the basis of the best
available scientific and commercial
information, we are listing St. Lucia
forest thrush as an endangered species
throughout all of its range.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to
species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include
recognition, requirements for Federal
protection, and prohibitions against
certain practices. Recognition through
listing results in public awareness, and
encourages and results in conservation
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50841
actions by Federal governments, private
agencies and groups, and individuals.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended,
and as implemented by regulations at 50
CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies
to evaluate their actions within the
United States or on the high seas with
respect to any species that is proposed
or listed as endangered or threatened,
and with respect to its critical habitat,
if any is being designated. However,
given that the Andean flamingo, Chilean
woodstar, and St. Lucia forest thrush are
not native to the United States, no
critical habitat is being designated in
this final rule.
Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes
limited financial assistance for the
development and management of
programs that the Secretary of the
Interior determines to be necessary or
useful for the conservation of
endangered and threatened species in
foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c)
of the Act authorize the Secretary to
encourage conservation programs for
foreign endangered species and to
provide assistance for such programs in
the form of personnel and the training
of personnel.
The Act and its implementing
regulations set forth a series of general
prohibitions and exceptions that apply
to all endangered and threatened
wildlife. As such, these prohibitions are
applicable to the Andean flamingo,
Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest
thrush. These prohibitions, under 50
CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any person
subject to the jurisdiction of the United
States to ‘‘take’’ (take includes harass,
harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill,
trap, capture, collect, or to attempt any
of these) within the United States or
upon the high seas, import or export,
deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship
in interstate or foreign commerce in the
course of a commercial activity or to sell
or offer for sale in interstate or foreign
commerce, any endangered wildlife
species. It also is illegal to possess, sell,
deliver, carry, transport, or ship any
such wildlife that has been taken in
violation of the Act. Certain exceptions
apply to agents of the Service and State
conservation agencies.
We may issue permits to carry out
otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened
wildlife species under certain
circumstances. Regulations governing
permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for
endangered species, and at 17.32 for
threatened species. With regard to
endangered wildlife, a permit must be
issued for the following purposes: For
scientific purposes, to enhance the
propagation or survival of the species,
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Federal Register / Vol. 75, No. 158 / Tuesday, August 17, 2010 / Rules and Regulations
and for incidental take in connection
with otherwise lawful activities.
Required Determinations
National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA)
We have determined that
environmental assessments and
environmental impact statements, as
defined under the authority of the
National Environmental Policy Act of
1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not
be prepared in connection with
regulations adopted under section 4(a)
of the Act. We published a notice
outlining our reasons for this
determination in the Federal Register
on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited
in this final rule is available on the
Internet at https://www.regulations.gov
or upon request from the Branch of
Listing, Endangered Species Program,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section).
Author
The primary author of this final rule
is staff of the Branch of Listing,
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species,
Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements,
Transportation.
*
BIRDS
1. The authority citation for part 17
continues to read as follows:
■
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C.
1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99–
625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding a new
entry for ‘‘Flamingo, Andean,’’ ‘‘Thrush,
St. Lucia forest,’’ and ‘‘Woodstar,
Chilean’’ in alphabetical order under
‘‘BIRDS’’ to the List of Endangered and
Threatened Wildlife to read as follows:
■
§ 17.11 Endangered and threatened
wildlife.
Accordingly, we amend part 17,
subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the
*
■
Vertebrate population where
endangered or
threatened
Historic
range
Scientific name
*
PART 17—[AMENDED]
Regulation Promulgation
Species
Common name
Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth
below:
*
*
*
*
(h) * * *
Status
*
When
listed
*
*
Critical
habitat
*
*
*
Flamingo, Andean ........
*
*
*
Phoenicoparrus andinus Argentina, Bolivia,
Chile, and Peru.
*
Entire ..................
E
*
................
NA
*
Thrush, St. Lucia forest
*
Cichlherminia
lherminieri
sanctaeluciae.
*
Entire ..................
E
*
................
NA
*
Woodstar, Chilean ........
*
*
*
Eulidia yarrellii .............. Chile and Peru .............
*
Entire ..................
E
*
................
NA
*
*
*
*
West Indies—St. Lucia
*
*
*
*
Dated: August 3, 2010.
Jeffrey L. Underwood,
Acing Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2010–19965 Filed 8–16–10; 8:45 am]
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]]>Agencies
[Federal Register Volume 75, Number 158 (Tuesday, August 17, 2010)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 50814-50842]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2010-19965]
[[Page 50813]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Part II
Department of the Interior
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fish and Wildlife Service
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Three Foreign
Bird Species From Latin America and the Caribbean as Endangered
Throughout Their Range; Final Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 75 , No. 158 / Tuesday, August 17, 2010 /
Rules and Regulations
[[Page 50814]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2009-0092; 90100-16601-FLA-B6]
RIN 1018-AV76
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Three
Foreign Bird Species From Latin America and the Caribbean as Endangered
Throughout Their Range
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), determine
endangered status for three species of birds from Latin America and the
Caribbean--the Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus), the Chilean
woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and the St. Lucia forest thrush
(Cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae)--under the Endangered Species
Act of 1973, as amended (Act).
DATES: This final rule is effective September 16, 2010.
ADDRESSES: This final rule is available on the Internet at https://www.regulations.gov. Comments and materials received, as well as
supporting documentation used in the preparation of this rule, are
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business
hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Branch of Foreign Species,
Endangered Species Program, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington,
VA 22203; telephone 703-358-2171.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Janine VanNorman, Chief, Branch of
Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203;
telephone 703-358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you use a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
In this final rule, we determine endangered status for the Andean
flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus), the Chilean woodstar (Eulidia
yarrellii), and the St. Lucia forest thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri
sanctaeluciae).
Previous Federal Actions
On November 24, 1980, we received a petition (1980 petition) from
Dr. Warren B. King, Chairman of the International Council for Bird
Preservation (ICBP), to add 60 foreign bird species to the List of
Threatened and Endangered Wildlife (50 CFR 17.11(h)), including two
species (the Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia forest thrush) that are
the subject of this final rule. In response to the 1980 petition, we
published a positive 90-day finding on May 12, 1981 (46 FR 26464) for
58 foreign species, noting that 2 of the foreign species identified in
the petition were already listed under the Act, and initiated a status
review. On January 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485), we published a 12-month
finding within an annual review on pending petitions and description of
progress on all species petition findings addressed therein. In that
notice, we found that all 58 foreign bird species from the 1980
petition were warranted but precluded by higher priority listing
actions. On May 10, 1985, we published the first annual notice (50 FR
19761), in which we continued to find that listing all 58 foreign bird
species from the 1980 petition was warranted but precluded. In our next
annual notice, published on January 9, 1986 (51 FR 996), we found that
listing 54 species from the 1980 petition, including the 2 species that
are the subject of this final rule, continued to be warranted but
precluded, whereas new information caused us to find that listing 4
other species in the 1980 petition was no longer warranted. We
published additional annual notices on the remaining 54 species
included in the 1980 petition on July 7, 1988 (53 FR 25511); December
29, 1988 (53 FR 52746); and November 21, 1991 (56 FR 58664), in which
we indicated that listing the Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia forest
thrush, along with the remaining species in the 1980 petition,
continued to be warranted but precluded.
On May 6, 1991, we received a petition (hereafter referred to as
the 1991 petition) from ICBP, to add 53 species of foreign birds to the
List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, including the Andean
flamingo, also the subject of this final rule. In response to the 1991
petition, we published a positive 90-day finding on December 16, 1991
(56 FR 65207), for all 53 species, and announced the initiation of a
status review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR 14496), we published a 12-month
finding on the 1991 petition, along with a proposed rule to list 30
African birds under the Act (15 each from the 1980 petition and 1991
petition). In that document, we announced our finding that listing the
remaining 38 species from the 1991 petition, including Andean flamingo,
was warranted but precluded by higher priority listing actions. On
January 12, 1995 (60 FR 2899), we published the final rule to list the
30 African birds and reiterated the warranted-but-precluded status of
the remaining species from the 1991 petition. We made subsequent
warranted-but-precluded findings for all outstanding foreign species
from the 1980 and 1991 petitions, including the three species that are
the subject of this final rule, as published in our annual notice of
review (ANOR) on May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354), and April 23, 2007 (72 FR
20184).
Per the Service's listing priority guidelines (September 21, 1983;
48 FR 43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the listing priority numbers
(LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign species. The
LPNs for the three species of birds in this final rule were as follows:
Andean flamingo (LPN 2), Chilean woodstar (LPN 4), and St. Lucia forest
thrush (LPN 3).
On January 23, 2008, the United States District Court for the
Northern District of California ordered the Service to issue proposed
listing rules for five foreign bird species, actions which had been
previously determined to be warranted but precluded: Andean flamingo
(Phoenicoparrus andinus), black-breasted puffleg (Eriocnemis
nigrivestis), Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), medium tree finch
(Camarhynchus pauper), and St. Lucia forest thrush (Cichlherminia
lherminieri sanctaeluciae). The court ordered the Service to issue
proposed listing rules for these species by the end of 2008.
On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we published in the Federal
Register a notice announcing our annual petition findings for foreign
species. In that notice, we announced listing to be warranted for 30
foreign bird species, including the 5 species that are subject to the
January 23, 2008, court order, of which 3 species are the subject of
this final rule. The medium tree finch and black-breasted puffleg are
the subjects of separate rules. The proposed rules for the medium tree
finch and black-breasted puffleg published in the Federal Register on
December 8, 2008 (73 FR 74434 and 73 FR 74427, respectively). The final
rule for the black-breasted puffleg published on July 27, 2010 (75 FR
43844).
On December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226), we published a Federal Register
notice proposing endangered status for the Andean flamingo
(Phoenicoparrus
[[Page 50815]]
andinus), the Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and the St. Lucia
forest thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae). We implemented
the Service's peer review process and opened a 60-day comment period to
solicit scientific and commercial information on the species from all
interested parties following publication of the proposed rule.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the proposed rule published on December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226),
we requested that all interested parties submit written comments on the
proposal by February 23, 2009. We received one comment on the proposed
rule from the public that did not support the proposal and one comment
that supported the proposal; neither comment contained substantive
information. We did not receive any requests for a public hearing.
Peer Review
In accordance with our peer review policy published on July 1, 1994
(59 FR 34270), we solicited expert opinion from 12 knowledgeable
individuals with scientific expertise that included familiarity with
the Andean flamingo, Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest thrush and
their habitats, biological needs, and threats. We received responses
from three of the peer reviewers, one for each of the species.
We reviewed all comments we received from the peer reviewers for
substantive issues and clarifying information regarding the listing of
the Andean flamingo, Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest thrush. The
peer reviewers generally concurred with our methods and conclusions and
provided additional clarifications and suggestions to improve the final
rule. Peer reviewer comments and information are addressed and
incorporated into the final rule as appropriate.
Species Information and Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) at 50 CFR part
424, set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. A species may be
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five
factors are: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification,
or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence.
Below is a species-by-species analysis of these five factors. The
species are considered in alphabetical order, beginning with the Andean
flamingo, and followed by the Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia forest
thrush.
I. Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus)
Species Description
Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) are gregarious, long-lived birds that
inhabit saline wetlands and breed in colonies (del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509-
519; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 277). The Andean flamingo is the largest
member of the Phoenicopteridae family in South America, reaching an
adult height of 3.5 feet (ft) (110 centimeters (cm)) (Fjelds[aring] and
Krabbe 1990, p. 86). This waterbird is native to low-, medium-, and
high-altitude wetlands in the Andean regions of Argentina, Bolivia,
Chile, and Peru (BirdLife International (BLI) 2008, p. 1; del Hoyo
1992, p. 526), where it is locally known as ``flamenco andino,''
``parina grande,'' ``pariguana,'' ``pariwana,'' and ``chururu'' (BLI
2006, p. 1; Castro and Varela 1992, p. 26; Davison 2007, p. 2; del Hoyo
1992, p. 526; S[aacute]enz 2006, p. 185).
An adult Andean flamingo has a pale yellow face and pale pink
coloring overall. Its upper plumage is brighter pink, with a deeper
pink to wine red-colored neck, breast, and wing-coverts (feathers on
the upper wing), and prominent black tertial feathers (feathers on the
posterior portion of the wing). The bill is pale yellow with a black
tip, and the legs and feet are yellow (BLI 2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992,
p. 526). Young Andean flamingos are grayish in color and achieve full
adult plumage in their third year (del Hoyo 1992, p. 526).
Andean flamingo is one of three flamingo species that are endemic
to the high Andes of South America (Johnson et al. 1958, p. 299;
Johnson 1967, p. 404; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 508; Line 2004, pp. 1-2;
Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2). All flamingos
have pink plumage to varying degrees (del Hoyo 1992, p. 508). The
Andean flamingo is distinguished from other South American flamingos by
its size (it is the largest in the area), leg coloring (it is the only
flamingo with yellow legs), and wing coloring (it has prominent black
tertial feathers that form a ``V'' when the flamingo is not in flight)
(BLI 2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526).
Taxonomy
The Andean flamingo was first taxonomically described as
Phoenicopterus andinus (Phoenicopteridae family), by Rodulfo Philippi
in 1854 (Philippi 1860, p. 164; Hellmayr 1932, p. 448). In 1856,
Bonaparte split the genus Phoenicopterus, placing the Andean flamingo
in a separate genus, as Phoenicoparrus andinus, along with the
sympatric (species inhabiting the same or overlapping geographical
areas) James' flamingos (P. jamesi) (Hellmayr and Conover 1948, pp.
273-278; Jenkin 1957, p. 405). In 1990, Sibley and Monroe (1990, p.
311) suggested the Andean flamingo should be returned to the genus
Phoenicopterus, based on the close genetic relatedness among all
flamingo species (Sibley and Ahlquist 1989, as cited in Ramsen et al.
2007, p. 18). However, many contemporary researchers maintain that the
Andean flamingo should remain within the genus Phoenicoparrus, based on
bill morphology and the lack of a hind toe (BLI 2008, p. 1; Caziani et
al. 2007, p. 276; del Hoyo et al. 1992, pp. 508-509; Fjelds[aring] and
Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Mascitti and Kravetz 2002, pp. 73-83; Valqui et al.
2000, p. 110). Therefore, we accept the species as Phoenicoparrus
andinus, which is also consistent with the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) species
database (UNEP-WCMC 2008b, p. 1).
Habitat and Life History
Andean flamingos are native to the Andes Mountains, from southern
Peru and southwestern Bolivia to northern Chile and northwestern
Argentina. They occupy shallow wetlands, collectively called salars,
which are characterized as shallow, often saline, lakes (known locally
as ``lagos'' or ``lagunas'') with exposed salt-flats or mudflats (Boyle
et al. 2004, pp. 563-564; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 277; Hurlbert and
Keith 1979, pp. 328). Andean flamingos also inhabit ``bofedales,''
which are described as wet, marshy, perennial meadowlands (de la Fuente
2002, p. 1; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p. 1). These wetlands are found at
various elevations, including: (1) The high Andes, referred to as
``altiplano'' (Spanish for ``high plains''), generally above 13,123 ft
(4,000 meters (m)); (2) the ``puna'' (Spanish for ``highlands''),
between 9,843 and 13,123 ft (3,000 and 4,000 m); and (3) the lowlands,
below 9,843 ft (3,000 m) (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103; Caziani et al.
2007, p. 278). Andean flamingos generally occupy wetlands that are less
than 3 ft (1 m)
[[Page 50816]]
deep (Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Mascitti and
Caste[ntilde]era 2006, p. 331).
Most of the wetlands in which Andean flamingos are found are
``endoreic,'' ``endorheic,'' or closed. These terms refer to
internally-draining water networks prevalent in the Andes that are
characterized by rivers or bodies of water that do not drain into the
sea, but either dry up or terminate in a basin (Caziani et al. 2001, p.
103; Hurlbert and Keith 1979, p. 328). The water levels at these basins
expand and contract seasonally and depend in large part on summer rains
to ``recharge'' or refill them (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani and
Derlindati 2000, pp. 124-125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti and
Caziani 1997, p. 328).
Andean flamingos are altitudinal and opportunistic migrants
(Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 190). During the summer (December to
January), Andean flamingos generally reside in the puna and altiplano
regions of the Andes, at elevations between 11,483 and 14,764 ft (3,500
and 4,500 m). In the winter, they may move to lower elevations--down to
210 ft (64 m) above sea level--along the Peruvian coast and inland
primarily to the central plains of Argentina, occasionally to Bolivia,
and rarely to Paraguay (Blake 1977, p. 207; BLI 2008, pp. 1 and 6;
Boyle et al. 2004, pp. 563-564, 570-571; Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et
al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2006. p. 17; Caziani et al. 2007, pp.
277, 279, 281; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514, 519; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe
1990, p. 85; Hurlbert and Keith 1979, pp. 330; Kahl 1975, pp. 99-101;
Mascitti and Bonaventura 2002, p. 360; Mascitti and Casta[ntilde]era
2006, p. 328; Romano et al. 2006, p. 17; Romano et al. 2008, pp. 45-
47).
They disperse widely, even while nesting, and can travel long
distances, flying from 249 mi (400 km) to 715 mi (1,150 km) daily
(Caziani et al. 2003, p. 11; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; Conway 2000,
p. 212; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509-519; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p.
85). Their movements are unpredictable and appear to be influenced by
varying environmental conditions affecting the availability of wetlands
(Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514 and 516;
Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). When climatic conditions are
favorable, breeding takes place, and when climatic conditions are
unfavorable, breeding is abandoned, very limited, or takes place at
alternative, less-productive breeding grounds (e.g., Bucher et al.
2000, pp. 119-120).
All flamingos were believed to be monogamous, with a strong pair-
bonding tendency that may be maintained from one breeding season to the
next (del Hoyo 1992, p. 514). However, studies on greater flamingos
(Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) show that mate-switching is common and
they are only seasonally monogamous (Cezilly and Johnson 2005, p. 545).
Andean flamingos nest at high densities, with breeding colonies
consisting of up to thousands of pairs (del Hoyo 1992, p. 526). Andean
flamingos reach sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years of age (Bucher
1992, p. 183). Breeding season for the Andean flamingo occurs in the
summer, generally from December through February (BLI 2008, p. 2; del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85;
Hurlbert and Keith 1979, pp. 328), although the breeding season may
begin as early as October and continue through April (Goldfeder and
Blanco 2007, p. 190). Both sexes share in nest-building and nesting
(Bucher 1992, p. 182). Nests are built on the miry clay or transient
islands of shallow lakes (del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514, 516). Each nest
consists of a clay mound, up to 16 inches (in) (40 cm) high, with a
small depression on top (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjelds[aring]
and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Flamingos lay a single white egg, usually in
December or January, and incubation lasts about 28 days (del Hoyo et
al. 1992, p. 526). If the egg is destroyed from flooding or predation,
the pair may re-clutch (lay a replacement egg), but only if the loss
occurs within a few days of the first egg being laid (del Hoyo et al.
1992, p. 516).
Chicks remain in the nest 5-12 days, during which time both the
parents feed the chick with ``milk'' secretions formed by glands in
their upper digestive tracts (Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 513). Feeding is shared by parents, in
approximately 24-hour shifts (Bucher 1992, p. 182). When flamingo
chicks leave the nest, they form large nursery cr[egrave]ches (groups)
of hundreds or thousands of birds that are tended by a few adults (del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516).
Flamingo breeding habits can vary widely from year to year.
Flamingos may breed in large numbers for 2 or more successive years,
followed by other years in which there is no known breeding. Not all
sexually mature adults breed every year and, even in years of breeding,
not all sexually mature adults will participate (Bucher 1992, p. 183).
Flamingos are generally considered to have poor breeding success
(Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85), and Andean flamingos, in
particular, have experienced periods of very low breeding success over
the past 20 years (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2) (See Population
Estimates, below). Juvenile mortality rates during dispersal are
unknown (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 284), and adult survival is considered
to be ``very high'' (Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Andean
flamingos are long-lived, with an average lifespan of 20 to 30 years.
Some wild adults live up to 50 years (BLI 2008, p. 2; del Hoyo et al.
1992, p. 517). Recent trends in breeding success are further discussed
under Population Estimates, below.
Andean flamingos are wading filter-feeders, often forming large
feeding flocks at wetlands alongside sympatric flamingos, Chilean
flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis), and James' flamingos (del Hoyo
1992, p. 512; Mascitti and Casta[ntilde]era 2006, pp. 328-329). Andean
flamingos feed principally on diatoms (microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae) (Mascitti and Kravetz 2002, p. 78), especially those in
the genus Surirella (no common name), which is a dominant component of
surface sediments at the bottom of many altiplano lakes in the Andes
(Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Hurlbert and Chang 1983, p.
4768).
Historical Range and Distribution
The Andean flamingo type specimen (the specimen that was first
described by Philippi in 1854) was collected from Salar de Atacama, in
Antofagasta Province (Chile) (Hellmayr 1932, p. 312). Salar de Atacama
is, therefore, referred to as the ``type locality.'' The species was
subsequently reported in Argentina in 1872 (Provinces of Jujuy and
Tucum[aacute]n) (Burmeister 1872, p. 364; Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p.
277), Peru (Departments of Salinas and Arequipa) in 1886 (Hellmayr
1932, p. 312; Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. 277; Weberbauer 1911, p.
27), and Bolivia in 1902 (Department of Oruru) (Hellmayr and Conover
1948, p. 277; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 289).
The species' movements and distribution within its range were not
understood throughout much of the 20th century. Early researchers
considered the Andean flamingo to be relatively sedentary (Jenkin 1957,
p. 405; Johnson et al. 1958, pp. 297-298), with a distribution that did
not extend below 10,000 ft (3,048 m) (Hellmayr 1932, p. 25; Johnson
1967, p. 405). Later researchers remarked on the nomadic nature of the
species (McFarlane 1975, p. 88) and reported lower limits to the
species' distribution (i.e., 8,200 ft (2,500 m) (Kahl 1975; pp. 99-
100)). Hurlbert and Keith (1979, pp. 334, 336) noted a seasonal
variance in the species' altitudinal distribution, and Bucher (1992, p.
182) noted that migration might take place between Chilean breeding
grounds and Argentinian wetlands.
[[Page 50817]]
Current Range and Distribution
The current range of the Andean flamingo extends from Peru, through
Chile and Bolivia, to Argentina, in wetlands at elevations ranging from
sea level (in southern Peru) to 14,764 ft (64 to 4,500 m) (Arengo 2009,
p. 16; BLI 2008, pp. 1, 6; Bucher 1992, p. 192; Bucher et al. 2000, p.
119; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). In
1989, an immature Andean flamingo--that had been banded in Chile
earlier that year--was captured in Brazil (Sick 1993, p. 154). There
were additional sightings of the Andean flamingo in Brazil in the 1990s
(Bornschein and Reinert 1996, pp. 807-808). However, the species is
considered a nonbreeding ``vagrant'' in Brazil (BLI 2008, p. 5).
Its total extent of occurrence (including sites where breeding does
not occur) is estimated as 124,711 square miles (mi\2\) (323,000 square
kilometers (km\2\)). The estimated area in which the species is known
to breed and reside year-round is 72,973 square miles (mi\2\) (189,000
square kilometers (km\2\)) (BLI 2008, p. 4).
The species' seemingly erratic movements and ability to disperse
widely, combined with the harsh climatic conditions and the
inaccessibility of flamingo habitat, have made it difficult for
researchers to fully understand their seasonal movements and breeding
habits (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514;
Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85) (see also Habitat and Life
History, above). Researchers have long considered Chilean wetlands to
be the primary breeding grounds for the species (Bucher et al. 2000, p.
119; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1-4; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p.
86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296; Kahl 1975 p. 100), although between
2005 and 2008, Andean flamingos bred in significant numbers in Bolivia
(Laguna Colorada, Laguna Khara) and smaller colonies have been observed
in Argentina (Laguna de Vilama, Laguna Grande) (Arengo 2009, p. 17).
Researchers have only recently confirmed that the species is an
altitudinal and opportunistic migrant (Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p.
190). Simultaneous censuses undertaken since 1997 confirmed that Andean
flamingos migrate altitudinally. In the summer, most of the population
is concentrated primarily in Chile, and to a lesser extent in Argentina
and Bolivia. In winter, the species may converge in certain Chilean and
Peruvian wetlands (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 111), with relatively large
numbers of birds overwintering in Bolivia and Argentina in some years
(Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 279, 281; Romano et al. 2008, pp. 45-47).
Recent banding studies confirmed that Andean flamingos at high-altitude
wetlands move to lower altitude lakes, where weather conditions are
less severe (Rocha and Rodriguez 2006, p. 12).
Andean flamingos occupy some wetlands year round (where they may or
may not breed), some wetlands only during the summer breeding season,
and other wetlands only in winter (see Table 1). Recent research
established that there is an important, complementary link between
breeding and nonbreeding wetlands frequented by Andean flamingos
(Derlindati 2008, p. 10). Research in Argentina at highland (breeding)
and lowland (non-breeding) sites indicated that, regardless of season,
Andean flamingos spend the majority of their time eating (Derlindati
2008, p. 10). They will travel to different wetlands to feed, even
while nesting (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; Conway
2000, p. 212; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509-519). Research in Argentina at
high-elevation breeding sites and low-elevation nonbreeding sites
indicated that given the timing of courtship in the annual cycle,
lowland sites were important in providing foraging and courtship
habitat necessary for successful breeding at high-altitude sites
(Derlindati 2008, p. 10).
Several Andean flamingo localities in each range country are
described below and in Table 1, organized in alphabetical order by
country and name of wetland. This is not an exhaustive accounting of
all known wetlands occupied by the species, but includes sites that are
frequented by the species or are otherwise notable, such as recently
discovered breeding sites. In Table 1, ``Type'' indicates whether the
site is known as a breeding (B) or non-breeding (NB) wetland. In most
cases, NB indicates that the species overwinters at the wetland.
However, in some cases, Andean flamingos occupy a wetland year-round,
but no breeding occurs there. Habitat information was obtained
primarily from Ducks Unlimited (2007a-d) and BirdLife International
(2008).
Table 1--Selected Andean Flamingo Nesting and Overwintering Wetlands in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Elevation in feet/ Area in acres/
Country Wetland Department meters hectares Type Description/comments
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Argentina............. Laguna Brava......... La Rioja.............. 13,780 ft/4,200 m... 1,977 ac/800 ha..... B/NB........... Large lake
associated with an
endoreic (closed)
river basin that
includes Laguna de
Mulas Muertas.
Argentina............. Laguna de Santa Fe.............. 276-295 ft/84-90 m.. 29,653 ac/12,000 ha. NB............. One of two lowest-
Melincu[eacute]. elevation endoreic
wetlands used by
Andean flamingos.
Argentina............. Lagunas de los Catamarca............. 13,911 ft/4,240 m... 343 ac/139 ha....... B/NB........... Shallow lagoon in a
Aparejos. larger lagoon
system that is
lacking in aquatic
vegetation.
Argentina............. Laguna de Mar C[oacute]rdoba........ 210-230 ft/64-70 m.. 494,211 ac/200,000 B/NB........... Large, permanent,
Chiquita. ha. hypersaline,
seasonally
fluctuating lake is
the lowest-
elevation locality.
Argentina............. Laguna de Mulas La Rioja.............. 13,123 ft/4,000 m... 1730 ac/700 ha...... NB............. Located near and
Muertas. part of the same
endoreic river
basin as Laguna
Brava.
Argentina............. Laguna de Pozuelos... Jujuy................. 11,483 ft/3,500 m... 24,710 ac/10,000 ha. B/NB........... Central lake within
endoreic basin with
lower water levels
and extensive
mudflats in winter.
Argentina............. Laguna Guayatayoc.... Jujuy................. 12,008 ft/3,660 m... 247,104 ac/100,000 NB............. Part of large salt
ha. basin where
endoreic waters
form shallow,
brackish-to-
hypersaline lakes.
[[Page 50818]]
Argentina............. Laguna Vilama........ Jujuy................. 14,436 ft/4,400 m... 19,768 ac/8,000 ha.. B/NB........... Large, permanent
endoreic lake,
prone to wide water
fluctuations and
winter freezes.
Bolivia............... Lago Poop[oacute].... Oruro................. 12,090 ft/3,685 m... 330,380 ac/133,700 NB............. Large, shallow
ha. saline lake in same
ancient endoreic
river basin as Lago
Uru Uru.
Bolivia............... Lago Uru Uru......... Oruro................. 12,126 ft/3,696 m... 69,190 ac/28,000 ha. NB............. Along with Lago
Poop[oacute],
experiences wide
fluctuations in
water level.
Bolivia............... Laguna Colorada...... Potos[iacute]......... 13,944 ft/4,250 m... 12,948 ac/5,240 ha.. B/NB........... Hypersaline endoreic
lake fed by streams
and thermal
springs, with
shores that freeze
at night.
Bolivia............... Laguna Kalina or Potos[iacute]......... 14,862 ft/4,530 m... 3,954 ac/1,600 ha... B/NB........... Hypersaline lake
Busch. associated with the
same endoreic water
basin as Laguna
Colorada.
Bolivia............... Laguna de Pastos Oruro................. 13-15,000 ft/4-4,500 37,066 ac/15,000 ha. B/NB........... Group of small,
Grandes. m. permanent saline
lakes in an ancient
caldera fed by
underground
sources.
Bolivia............... Salar de Chalviri.... Potos[iacute]......... 14,396 ft/4,388 m... 28,417 ac/11,500 ha. NB............. Basin of many small
lakes separated by
saltflats, fed by
small streams and
thermal springs.
Bolivia............... Salar de Coipasa..... Oruro................. 12,112 ft/3,692 m... 548,077 ac/221,800 B/NB........... Large salt basin and
ha. shallow hypersaline
lake, receiving
water from
R[iacute]o Lauca.
Bolivia............... Laguna de Saquewa.... Oruro................. 13,123 ft/4000 m.... .................... NB............. Hypersaline lake
associated with Rio
Lauca system,
receives input from
external afluents
and underground
waters.
Chile................. Lago del Negro Atacama............... 13,123 ft/4,000 m... 6,919 ac/2,800 ha... B/NB........... Large high-altitude
Francisco. permanent lake
surrounded by
bofedales.
Chile................. Salar de............. Antofagasta........... 12,211 ft/3,722 m... 93,406 ac/37,800 ha. B/NB........... High-altitude salt
Ascot[aacute]n....... basin with many
saline lakes on
perimeter, fed by
several freshwater
springs.
Chile................. Salar de Atacama..... Antofagasta........... 7,546 ft/2,300 m.... 691,895 ac/280,000 B/NB........... Endoreic salt basin
ha. with fluctuating
water levels from
summer storms and
snowmelt.
Chile................. Salar de Coposa...... Tarapac[aacute]....... 12,376 ft/3,730 m... 21,003 ac/8,500 ha.. B/NB........... Endoreic salt with
small lagoon that
fluctuates greatly
in size.
Chile................. Salar de Huasco...... Tarapac[aacute]....... 13,123 ft/4,000 m... 14,826 ac/6,000 ha.. B/NB........... Salt basin receiving
summer rains and
fed by snow melt
bogs and bofedales.
Chile................. Salar de Surire...... Tarapac[aacute]....... 13,583 ft/4,140 m... 61,776 ac/25,000 ha. B/NB........... Permanent saline
lake.
Peru.................. Lago Parinacochas.... Ayacucho.............. 10,738 ft/3,273 m... 16,556 ac/6,700 ha.. NB............. Shallow, large,
brackish endoreic
lake and marshes
with exposed salt
flats in dry
season.
Peru.................. Laguna de Loriscota.. Puno.................. 15,299 ft/4,663 m... 8525 ac/3,450 ha.... NB............. Permanent, shallow
hypersaline lake
surrounded by
bofedales.
Peru.................. Laguna Salinas....... Arequipa.............. 14,091 ft/4,295 m... 17,544 ac/7,100 ha.. NB............. Semipermanent,
shallow hypersaline
lake with
freshwater springs
and bofedales on
perimeter.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Argentina: Several wetlands in Argentina provide year-round habitat
for the Andean flamingo (see Table 1). The species breeds and
overwinters regularly at Laguna de Pozuelos and Lagunas de Vilama
(Caziani & Derlindati 2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 113;
Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Ducks
Unlimited 2007a, pp. 1-4). The Vilama wetlands system (Lagunas de
Vilama) is comprised of 12 lakes: Arenal, Blanca, Caiti, Catal, Cerro
Negro, Colpayoc, Guinda, Honda, Isla Grande, Palar, Pululos, and Vilama
(Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103).
During a 3-year study, Andean flamingos occupied eight of the nine
lakes, but were especially concentrated on Laguna Vilama and Laguna
Catal (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 125). Caziani et al. 2001 (p.
104) determined that the Vilama wetland system provided a variety of
spatial and seasonal ecological conditions on the landscape level, such
that a range of options existed from which Andean flamingos could
select habitat at any given time during the year. They further suggest
that similar landscape-level relationships between wetlands exist, even
when the wetlands are not located within the same basin (Caziani et al.
2001, p. 110). The Lagunas de Vilama wetland has harbored up to 30
percent of Andean flamingos during the breeding season (Caziani &
Derlindati 2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13).
In recent decades, the species has nested or overwintered in
locations not previously recorded. In January 1998, the first account
of Andean flamingos nesting was reported at Laguna Brava (Bucher et al.
2000, p. 119), which was long known as an overwintering site for
[[Page 50819]]
the species (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). Since 1998, Laguna Brava has
continued to provide isolated nesting sites (de la Fuente 2002, p. 6).
Also in January 1998, large numbers of nonbreeding birds were reported
at Laguna de Mulas Muertas, just 4 mi (7 km) from Laguna Brava (Bucher
et al. 2000, p. 120). Researchers attribute both the large number of
breeding birds at Laguna Brava and the large number of nonbreeding
birds at Laguna de Mulas Muertas to unusual rainfall patterns that year
(Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120). In March 2001, chicks were observed at
Lagunas de los Aparejos (Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 279, 283), part of a
lagoon system with Laguna Azul and Laguna Negra (BLI 2008, p. 50).
Normally known as a nesting site for the James' flamingo (Childress
2005, p. 6), this may now be a nesting site for the Andean flamingo as
well (BLI 2008, p. 50).
Andean flamingos overwinter at both high- and low-elevation
wetlands in Argentina. Laguna Guayatayoc is a high-elevation
overwintering site for Andean flamingos (Ducks Unlimited 2007a, pp. 1-
4), where the species has sometimes been reported in relatively large
numbers (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 116; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279).
Laguna de Mar Chiquita is the lowest-elevation wetland frequented by
the Andean flamingo (Bucher et al 1992, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2007, p.
279; Derlindati 2008, pp. 6-7). Long known as an overwintering site,
researchers report that a small group of Andean flamingos (about 100
individuals) may reside there year round (BLI 2008, p. 1; Bucher 1992,
pp. 179, 182), and breeding has recently been reported there (Childress
et al. 2005, p. 6). Laguna de Melincu[eacute] is another low-elevation
overwintering site for Andean flamingos (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279).
Although breeding has not been reported there (Childress et al. 2005,
p. 6), the species engages in nuptial displays vital to reproductive
success in the breeding colonies (Derlindati 2008, p. 9). Researchers
estimated that in recent years, between 17 and 30 percent of the world
population of Andean flamingos overwintered at Laguna de
Melincu[eacute] in winter (Romano et al 2006a, p. 17; Romano et al.
2008, pp. 45-47). A recent winter monitoring carried out in lowland
wetlands of the southern Santa Fe province (that include
Melincu[eacute] and three other nearby wetlands) has dramatically
increased the numbers of Andean Flamingos previously recorded in
Argentinean lowland wetlands, reaching 61 percent of the global
population (Romano et al. 2008, pp. 45-47).
Bolivia: There are at least 10 flamingo nesting sites in Bolivia
(Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). Laguna Colorada is a high-altitude
wetland where Andean flamingos remain year-round and where they have
recently nested with greater frequency (see Factor B) (BLI 2008, p. 1;
Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Davison 2007,
p. 1; Ducks Unlimited 2007b, pp. 14; Kahl 1979, p. 100). Laguna Kalina
(also known as Laguna Calina and Laguna Busch) has recently figured
prominently as a nesting location. Chicks were first reported there in
1997 (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112), and nesting has been reported there,
at small but consistent rates, in 2004, 2005, and 2006 (Childress et
al. 2005, p. 6; Childress et al. 2006, p. 5; Childress et al. 2007a, p.
7).
Salar de Pastos Grandes is another lake system that includes Laguna
de Pastos Grandes, Laguna Ramaditas, Laguna Hedionda, Laguna
Ca[ntilde]apa, Laguna Cachi, Laguna Khara, Laguna Chulluncani, and
Laguna Khar Khota (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 13). This wetland complex
provides breeding and non-breeding habitat.
Non-breeding year-round wetlands in Bolivia include: Lago Uru Uru
(Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5-8; Kahl 1975, p. 100; M[oslash]lgaard et
al. 1999; Rocha et al. 2006, p. 18); Salar de Chalviri (Ducks Unlimited
2007b, pp. 17-20; Hurlbert & Keith 1979, p. 331); Lago Poop[oacute], a
known locality since 1921 (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Hellmayr &
Conover 1948, p. 277; Johnson 1967, p. 404); and Salar de Coipasa, a
wintering site of known importance for all three South American
flamingo species since the mid-20th century (Johnson 1967, p. 404;
Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p. 9). These lakes are hydrologically connected
through the Titicaca-Desaguadero-Poop[oacute]-Salar de Coipasa (TDPS)
basin, a large endoreic (closed) basin shared between Peru, Bolivia,
and Chile (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11). Several Andean flamingo
wetlands are connected to this hydrological basin through rivers,
including: Lago Poop[oacute] (Bolivia), which is connected to Lago
Titicaca (Peru) through R[iacute]o Desaguadero; Salar de Coipasa
(Bolivia), which is connected to Lago Poop[oacute] through R[iacute]o
Laca Jahuira River (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11); and Lago Uru Uru,
which is fed by R[iacute]o Desaguadero (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5).
In 2000, more than 50 percent of the known population of Andean
flamingos overwintered at Lagos Uru Uru and Poop[oacute] (Caziani et
al. 2007, p. 279).
Laguna Saquewa and Laguna Macaya are also important sites for the
three flamingo species. During winter, Andean Flamingo numbers can
reach up to 2,000.
Chile: There are at least a dozen Andean flamingo breeding sites in
Chile (Childress et al. 2006, p. 7). Salar de Atacama, where the Andean
flamingo type specimen was obtained in 1854 (Hellmayr 1932, p. 312;
Philippi 1860, p. 164), has been a consistent and primary breeding
ground (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7; Ducks
Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1-4; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296). Several other
sites have figured consistently and prominently over the years,
including Salar de Surire, Salar de Huasco, and Salar de Ascot[aacute]n
(Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296;
Kahl 1975 p. 100). Andean flamingos were first observed at Salar de
Surire in the early 1970s (McFarlane 1975, p. 88). The first report of
breeding (observation of chicks) there occurred in 1997 (Valqui et al.
2000, p. 112), and breeding has continued there at increasing numbers
(Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283). Laguna Ascot[aacute]n differs from most
other Andean flamingo wetlands, as it is fed by 13 freshwater springs
as well as several brackish lagoons (Vilina and Mart[iacute]nez 1998,
p. 28). In addition, Salar de Coposa has long served as breeding and
overwintering habitat for the Andean flamingo (Caziani et al. 2007, p.
279; Johnson 1958, p. 297; Kahl 1975 p. 100).
Salar de Atacama, Salar de Coposa, Salar de Huasco, Salar de Negro
Francisco, and Salar de Surire also provide year-round habitat for the
Andean flamingo (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. 2007, p.
279; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 5-8; Johnson 1958, p. 296). In 1998 and
2000, between 3,500 and 4,500 birds overwintered at these sites
(Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279).
Peru: Andean flamingos frequent several wetlands in Peru (BLI 2008,
pp. 5, 72, 74-75, 78; Ducks Unlimited 2007d, pp. 21, 25, 29; Jameison
and Bingham 1912, p. 14; Ricalde 2003, p. 91). Although BirdLife
International reports breeding sites in Peru (2008, p. 2), the Flamingo
Specialist Group reported no known nesting sites or evidence of
breeding at Peruvian wetlands in 2005, 2006, or 2007 (M. Valqui Munn,
in litt., as cited in Childress et al. 2005, p. 6; Arengo in litt., as
cited in Childress et al. 2006, p. 6; Arengo in litt., as cited in
Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). The species frequently overwinters at
Laguna Salinas, Laguna Loriscota, Laguna Vizcachas, and Lago
Parinacochas, among other locations (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Ducks
Unlimited 2007d, p. 21, 25, 29-30; Jameison and Bingham
[[Page 50820]]
1912, p. 14). It is estimated that nearly 20 percent of the global
population overwinters in Peru (Ricalde 2003, p. 91).
Recent Trends in Distribution: In 1997, 50 percent of the breeding
population (of breeding age) was distributed among three sites in Chile
(Salar de Surire, Laguna Maricunga, and Laguna Negro Francisco) and two
sites in Argentina (Pozuelos and Vilama) (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279).
In the summer of 2005, 50 percent of the breeding population was
located in 5 separate wetlands--Negro Francisco (Chile), Salar de
Surire (Chile), Lagunas de Vilama (Argentina), Laguna Colorada
(Bolivia), and Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13).
Population Estimates
Between 1965 and 1968, Charles Cordier's estimate of the Andean
flamingo population varied by an order of magnitude, from 50,000 to
500,000 (as cited in Johnson 1967, p. 404; as cited in Kahl 1975, p.
100). In 1975, Kahl (1975, p. 100) estimated the total population to be
150,000 individuals. This estimate was based on (1) previous estimates;
(2) the fact that the largest number of individuals Kahl had seen in
one place (Lago Uru Uru, Bolivia) was 18,000 individuals; and (3) that,
at most sites, he observed the Andean flamingo to be less numerous than
the Chilean flamingo and James' flamingo. In 1986, the population was
estimated to be less than 50,000 individuals and declining (Johnson
2000, p. 203). However, the accuracy of earlier population estimates
has never been confirmed. According to Arengo (in litt. 2007, p. 2), a
member of the Altoandino Flamingo Conservation Group (Grupo de
Conservaci[oacute]n Flamencos Altoandinos), previous historical
population estimates were based on extrapolations of data that are not
considered to be reliable. Experts consider the figure of between
50,000 and 100,000 individuals may have been accurate until the mid-
1980s (BLI 2008, p. 1). Although the figure of 150,000 (e.g.,
Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 86) was still being reported in the
1990s, an estimate of 50,000 is considered a more accurate figure
(Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2; BLI 2008 p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p.
526), and experts believe that the species underwent a severe reduction
from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 5).
The first simultaneous census of Andean flamingos was conducted in
1997 (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 110). Using a comprehensive sampling
design and conducting simultaneous surveys at over 200 wetlands in
Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, researchers counted: 33,918 Andean
flamingos in January 1997; 27,913 in January 1998; 14,722 in June 1998;
and, 24,442 in July 2000 (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). In the summer
of 2005, a total of 31,617 Andean flamingos were counted (Caziani et
al. 2006, p. 13). Recent censuses estimate the global population at
around 34,000 individuals (Caziani et al. 2006, pp. 276-287; Caziani et
al. 2007, pp. 13-17).
According to Arengo (in litt. 2007, p. 2), long-term population
trends have been difficult to establish, given the unreliability of
previous population estimates. However, given that the global
population sizes of all other flamingo species are estimated above
100,000 individuals, experts consider the Andean flamingo to be the
rarest of the 6 flamingo species (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2).
Nesting sites: In the last decade, small groups of Andean flamingos
have been reported intermittently nesting at a greater variety of
sites, including: Laguna Brava and Lagunas de Vilama (Argentina)
(Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Derlindati
2008, pp. 6-7); Laguna Colorada and Laguna Kalina (Bolivia) (Caziani et
al. 2007, p. 279; Childress et al. 2005, p. 6; Childress et al. 2006,
p. 5; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7; Rodriguez Ramirez 2006, as cited in
Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2); and Salar de Punta Negra and Salar de
Huasco (Chile) (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2007, p.
279; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). In recent years, Andean flamingos
have been recorded from 25 wetlands survey units, but there were fewer
than 100 individuals at many of these sites (Caziani et al. 2007, p.
281). Only 12 wetlands contained more than 100 Andean flamingos at any
one of the 4 sampling periods from 1997 to 2000, and breeding has been
consistently reported at only 2 of these sites (Arengo in litt. 2007,
pp. 2-3; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 279-281;
Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112).
Breeding success: Productivity estimates from intensive studies of
breeding sites in Chile indicate marked fluctuations over the past 20
years, with periods of very low breeding success (Arengo in litt. 2007,
p. 2). In 1987, a high of around 15,000 chicks fledged, followed by 10
years of relatively low productivity (fewer than 800 chicks fledged per
year on average), and a recent increase to an average of 3,000 chicks
fledged since 2000 (Rodriguez Ramirez 2006, Amado et al. 2007, both as
cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1-3). Between 1997 and 2001,
successful breeding (based on the observation of 2-3-month-old chicks)
was documented only at three wetlands and, in those wetlands, a total
of only 12,801 chicks were produced--Salar de Surire (Chile; 9,200
chicks), Salar de Atacama (Chile; 3,378 chicks), and Aparejos
(Argentina; 223 chicks) (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283).
The most recent simultaneous census data indicate that a total of
2,338 chicks survived at breeding colonies located in Argentina,
Bolivia, and Chile during the 2006-2007 breeding season (December to
February) (Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). In Argentina, eight sites
were surveyed, six of which are known Andean flamingo breeding sites.
Of these, breeding was attempted at one site, but was unsuccessful. No
breeding was reported in Peru during the 2006-2007 breeding season. Of
4 sites surveyed in Bolivia, 3 of which are known Andean flamingo
nesting grounds, breeding occurred at 2 sites (Laguna Colorada and
Kalina) producing total of 1,800 chicks. In Chile, breeding was
attempted at four sites in Salar de Atacama. A total of 2,900 pairs of
Andean flamingos laid eggs but only 538 chicks survived.
Conservation Status
The Andean flamingo is the rarest of six flamingo species worldwide
(family Phoenicopteridae). The IUCN considers the Andean flamingo to be
``Vulnerable,'' because (1) it has undergone a rapid population
decline, (2) it is exposed to ongoing exploitation and declines in
habitat quality, (3) and, although exploitation may decrease, the
longevity and slow breeding of flamingos suggest that the legacy of
past threats may persist through generations to come (BLI 2008, p. 1).
Long-lived species with slow rates of reproduction and ongoing poor
breeding success, such as that being experienced by the Andean
flamingo, can quickly decline towards extinction when reproduction does
not keep pace with mortality (BLI 2008, p. 2; Bucher 1992, p. 183; del
Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 517) (see Population Estimates, above).
Summary of Factors Affecting the Andean Flamingo
A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment
of the Species' Habitat or Range
Andean flamingos occupy shallow, saline wetlands in the lowland,
puna, and altoandino regions of the Andes (see Table 1) (BLI 2008, pp.
1, 6; Bucher 1992, p. 192; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al.
2007; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85).
Andean flamingos are altitudinal migrants and alternate between
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wetlands based largely on environmental conditions and especially the
availability of water (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119;
del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514; Fjelds[aring] and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Goldfeder
and Blanco 2007, p. 190; Hurlbert and Keith 1979, pp. 334, 336; Rocha
and Rodriguez 2006, p. 12). During the summer breeding season (December
to January), Andean flamingos occupy high-elevation wetlands in Chile,
Argentina, and Bolivia, and less frequently, Peru. During the winter,
they may stay at the high-elevation wetlands, or move to lower
elevations i
