Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout Its Range with Special Rule, 56770-56791 [E9-26131]

Agencies

• Fish and Wildlife Service
• DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

[Federal Register Volume 74, Number 211 (Tuesday, November 3, 2009)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 56770-56791]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: E9-26131]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056]
[90100-1660-1FLA B6]
[RIN 1018-AW00]


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the 
Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout Its Range with Special 
Rule

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to 
list the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) as threatened, 
with a special rule, under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act). This proposal, if made final, would extend the Act's 
protections to this species and amend the regulations at 50 CFR part 17 
to create a special rule under authority of section 4(d) of the Act 
that provides measures that are necessary and advisable for the 
conservation of the salmon-crested cockatoo. The Service seeks data and 
comments from the public on this proposed listing and special rule.

DATES: We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before 
February 1, 2010. We must receive requests for public hearings, in 
writing, at the address shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT 
section by December 18, 2009.

ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
     Federal eRulemaking Portal: https://www.regulations.gov. Follow the instructions for submitting comments on 
Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056.
     U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public Comments Processing, 
Attn: FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056; Division of Policy and Directives 
Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, 
Suite 222; Arlington, VA 22203.
    We will not accept e-mails or faxes. We will post all comments on 
https://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any 
personal information you provide us (see the Public Comments section 
below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Douglas Krofta, Chief, Branch of 
Listing, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 
4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703-
358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you use a telecommunications 
devise for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service 
(FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Public Comments

    We intend that any final action resulting from this proposal will 
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we are 
requesting comments from other government agencies, the scientific 
community, industry, or any other interested party concerning this 
proposed rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:
     Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data 
concerning any threats (or lack thereof) to this species and 
regulations that may be addressing those threats;
     Additional information concerning the range, distribution, 
and population size of this species;
     Any information on the biological or ecological 
requirements of this species;
     Current or planned activities in the areas occupied by 
this species and possible impacts of these activities on this species;
     Any information concerning the effects of climate change 
on this species or its habitats;
     Any information concerning numbers of this species held in 
captivity in the United States, breeding success, and types of 
activities that should be addressed in the special rule; and
     The appropriate conservation status for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.
    If you submit a comment via https://www.regulations.gov, your entire 
comment--including any personal identifying information--will be posted 
on the Web site. If you submit a hardcopy comment that includes 
personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your 
document that we withhold this information from public review. However, 
we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all 
hardcopy comments on https://www.regulations.gov.

[[Page 56771]]

    Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting 
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be 
available for public inspection on https://www.regulations.govor by 
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; 
telephone 703-358-2171.

Background

    Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires us to make a finding (known 
as a ``90-day finding'') on whether a petition to add a species to, 
remove a species from, or reclassify a species on the Federal Lists of 
Endangered or Threatened Wildlife and Plants has presented substantial 
information indicating that the requested action may be warranted. To 
the maximum extent practicable, we make the finding within 90 days 
following receipt of the petition and publish our finding promptly in 
the Federal Register. If we find that the petition has presented 
substantial information indicating that the requested action may be 
warranted (a positive finding), section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires 
us to commence a status review of the species if one has not already 
been initiated under our internal candidate assessment process. In 
addition, section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires us to make a finding 
within 12 months following receipt of the petition on whether the 
requested action is warranted, not warranted, or warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions (this finding is referred 
to as the ``12-month finding''). Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires 
that a finding of warranted but precluded for petitioned species should 
be treated as having been resubmitted on the date of such finding, and 
is, therefore, subject to a new finding within 1 year and subsequently 
thereafter until we take action on a proposal to list or withdraw our 
original finding. The Service publishes an annual notice of review 
(ANOR) of findings on resubmitted petitions for all foreign species for 
which listings were previously found to be warranted but precluded.

Previous Federal Action

    On May 6, 1991, we received a petition (1991 petition) from the 
International Council for Bird Preservation to add 53 foreign birds to 
the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, including the salmon-
crested cockatoo. In response to the 1991 petition, we published a 
substantial 90-day finding on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 
53 species, and initiated a status review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR 
14496), we published a 12-month finding on the 1991 petition, along 
with a proposed rule to list 30 African birds under the Act, which 
included 15 species from the 1991 petition. In that document, we 
announced our finding that listing the remaining 38 species from the 
1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, was warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions. We made a subsequent 
warranted-but-precluded finding for all outstanding foreign species 
from the 1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, as 
published in our ANOR on May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354).
    Per the Service's listing priority guidelines (September 21, 1983; 
48 FR 43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the listing priority numbers 
(LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign species. The 
LPN for the salmon-crested cockatoo was LPN 2. With the exception of 
listing priority ranking of 1, which addresses monotypic genera that 
face imminent threats of high magnitude, category 2 represents the 
Service's highest priority.
    On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we published in the Federal 
Register a notice announcing our annual petition findings for foreign 
species. We announced that listing was warranted for 30 foreign bird 
species, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is the subject of 
this proposed rule, and stated that we would ``promptly publish 
proposals to list these 30 taxa.''
    On September 8, 2008, the Service received a 60-day notice of 
intent to sue from the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and Peter 
Galvin regarding alleged violations of section 4 of the Act for the 
failure to promptly publish listing proposals for the 30 ``warranted'' 
species identified in our 2008 ANOR. Under a settlement agreement 
approved by the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of 
California on June 15, 2009 (CBD, et al. v. Salazar, 09-cv-02578-CRB), 
the Service must submit to the Federal Register a proposed listing rule 
for the salmon-crested cockatoo by October 30, 2009. Below, we 
summarize our analysis of the best available scientific and commercial 
data on the status of this species.

Species Description

    Cockatoos are a distinct group of parrots (order Psittaciformes), 
distinguished by the presence of an erectile crest (Cameron 2007, p. 1; 
Collar 1989, p. 5) and the lack of dyck texture in their feathers, 
which produces blue and green coloration in the plumage of other 
parrots (Brown & Toft 1999, p. 141). The salmon-crested cockatoo (also 
known as the Seram, Moluccan, pink-crested, or rose-crested cockatoo) 
is the largest and the most striking of Indonesia's white cockatoos 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Its body length is 46-52 centimeters (cm) 
(15.6-20 inches (in)), and its plumage varies from pale salmon-pink to 
whitish-pink. It has a long backward-curving, deep salmon-pink crest; 
the bill is large and gray-black; and the underwing and undertail are 
yellow-orange (BirdLife International (BLI) 2000, p. 242; Forshaw 1989, 
p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, pp. 280-281; Sweeney 2000, p. 130). Sexual 
dimorphism is exhibited by iris color (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278; 
Forshaw1989, p. 141; Peratino 1979, p. 125).

Taxonomy

    In 1751, Edwards described and pictorially delineated the salmon-
crested cockatoo (Lint 1951, p. 223) and, in 1788, J.F. Gmelin named 
the species Psittacus moluccensis (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Lint 1951, p. 
223). In 1937, Peters (1937, p. 175) used the name Kakatoe moluccensis 
(Gmelin) in the Check-list of Birds of the World. In 1992, Andrew 
(1992, p. 21) used the name Cacatua moluccensis in the first published 
checklist of the birds of Indonesia. This name continues to be the 
recognized scientific name (Integrated Taxonomic Information System 
(ITIS) 2008, p. 1; Sibley & Monroe 1990, p. 112), and the alternative 
genus name Kakatoe is now obsolete (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278).
    Some references (ITIS 2008, p. 1; Sibley & Monroe 1990, p. 112) 
place cockatoos in the family Psittacidae with lories and true parrots, 
whereas others (Cameron 2007, p. 1; Convention on International Trade 
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 2008a, p. 1) 
place cockatoos in a separate family, Cacatuidae. Of the 21 cockatoo 
species, 11 are in the genus Cacatua (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3).
    The closest relatives of the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the South Moluccas, Indonesia (in the east central 
Indonesian island chain), are the umbrella cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the North Moluccas, and the blue-eyed cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the island of New Britain off the northeast coast of New 
Guinea (Cameron 2007, pp. 38-39, 51). In a biogeographic analysis of 
the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny, Brown and Toft (1999, pp. 150-
151) suggest that these three species may have had a common ancestor 
that occupied an ancient landmass comprising Halmahera (a North 
Moluccan island) and Bismarck. The breakup of this landmass created

[[Page 56772]]

two populations, and the subsequent dispersal of cockatoos from the 
North Moluccas to the South Moluccas created another population, which 
became the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cameron 2007, p. 56).

Range and Distribution

    Cockatoos are only found in Australasia--a few archipelagos in 
Southeast Asia (Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Tanimbar, Bismarck, 
and Solomon), New Guinea, and Australia--suggesting that the modern 
species arose after the breakup of Gondwanaland, a southern 
supercontinent that existed 200-500 million years ago. The 19\th\ 
century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was among the first to note 
the break in Australasian and Asian fauna. Wallace's line runs between 
the islands of Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Sulawesi, and south of the 
Philippines. Cockatoos are present on Lombok and Sulawesi, but not on 
Bali and Borneo. The line represents the western edge of a zone of 
overlap between Australasian and Asian fauna (known as Wallacea), with 
the eastern edge defined by the Australian continental shelf 
(Lydekker's Line) (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3; White & Bruce 1986, p. 32).
    The oceanic islands of Wallacea have a high level of endemism, 
which resulted in many islands being identified as Endemic Bird Areas 
(EBA) (Cameron 2007, p. 56). BLI designates EBAs by mapping bird 
species with restricted ranges of less than 50,000 square kilometers 
(km\2\) (19,300 square miles (mi\2\)) that overlap. The unique 
biodiversity concentrated in these small areas is particularly 
vulnerable; thus, EBAs represent priority areas for global biodiversity 
conservation (BLI 2008i, p. 1; Collar 2000, p. 27; Stattersfield et al. 
1998, pp. 39, 45). The salmon-crested cockatoo is included in the Seram 
EBA (BLI 2003, p. 1; Stattersfield et al. 1998, pp. 528-531).
    Seram. The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of 
Seram (alternate spelling, Ceram), with records from adjacent islands 
of Haruku, Saparua, and Ambon (formerly called Ambonia) in the South 
Moluccas (BLI 2001, p. 1662; Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, 
p. 281; Peters 1937, p. 175). The species resides in lowland rain 
forests up to 1,000 meters (m) (3,608 feet (ft)), remains locally 
common in Manusela National Park, and appears to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island (BLI 2008a, p. 2; Isherwood et al. 
1998, p. 18). For a listing of specific distribution records of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo, see BLI (2001, p. 1662).
    Ambon. Whether this species is native or introduced to Ambon is 
uncertain. Stresemann (1934, p. 16) reported that the salmon-crested 
cockatoo did not occur on Ambon. Thus, some scientists follow the view 
that the species may have been introduced to this island (Forshaw 1989, 
p. 141; Lever 1987, p. 245; Long 1981, p. 247; Smiet 1985, p. 189; van 
Bemmel 1948, as cited in White & Bruce 1986, p. 212). The salmon-
crested cockatoo was formerly traded in significant numbers, and 
shipments of birds from Seram transited through Ambon (the capital of 
the Maluku Province), where undoubtedly some birds escaped. Other 
scientists suggest that the cockatoos may well be wild birds (Marsden 
1992, pp. 12-13; Poulsen & Jepson 1996, pp. 159-160), with the 
persistence of a small population in northeast Ambon (Poulsen & Jepson 
1996, p. 159).
    Haruku and Saparua. The status of the salmon-crested cockatoo on 
Haruku and Saparua is unknown (Metz 1998, p. 10), and the species may 
be extinct on these two islands (Metz 2002, p. 1; Snyder et al. 2000, 
p. 68). For Haruku, there is one unspecified locality and date of 
observation reported (Stresemann 1934, p. 16), but Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, p. 160) did not find the species in 1994 or 1996. For Saparua, 
there is one specimen in the RMNH (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire 
(Leiden, Netherlands)) recorded in 1923 (BLI 2001, p. 1663).
    For purposes of this proposal, we consider the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's natural range to include Seram and the three islands of 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Although the status of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo is unknown on Haruku and Saparua, the species has been 
reported from these islands, and we are unaware of any survey that has 
conclusively found that the species no longer occurs there.

Habitat

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is believed to be a specialist of 
primary lowland forests (Kinnarid et al. 2003, p. 228). It occurs at 
altitudes between 100 and 1,000-1,200 m (328 and 3,608-3,926 ft) (BLI 
2008a, p. 2; Bowler & Taylor 1993, p. 149; Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 
281), but rarely occurs above 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Cameron 2007, 
p. 77; Marsden 1992, p. 11; Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Smiet 1985, p. 
189). Marsden (1992, p. 11) found that cockatoos tended to be recorded 
in mature, open-canopied lowland forests with some very large, tall 
trees and some low vegetation. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
that cockatoo abundance was significantly associated with the presence 
of potential nest trees (Octomeles sumatranus) and strangling figs 
(Ficus spp.). Cameron (2007, pp. 77-78) noted that island cockatoos 
prefer lowland forests over montane forests because lowland forests 
contain greater plant diversity and, thus, have a more diverse and 
abundant food supply. They also support larger trees, which are more 
likely to have cavities needed for nesting--a critical resource because 
cockatoos are incapable of excavating their own nest cavities. The 
salmon-crested cockatoo prefers flat or gently sloping terrain.
    The highest densities of birds occur in little-disturbed, lowland 
forests below 300 m (984 ft), and the lowest densities occur in 
recently logged forests and in non-forested areas (Marsden 1992, p. 9; 
Marsden 1998, p. 608). However, Marsden and Fielding (1999, p. 444) 
were unable to find differences in the species' presence based on 
habitat associations, and Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
densities did not correspond closely to habitat differences across 
study sites. Marsden (1992, p. 11) suggested that the apparent 
differences in cockatoo densities between young logged forests and 
secondary forests, which have similar vegetation parameters, may be 
caused by differential trapping pressures and patterns of disturbance, 
differences in tree species compositions and overall habitat 
heterogeneity, and differences in cockatoo densities in areas before 
logging.
    Lower densities of birds occur in transition and submontane forests 
and on the edges of cultivated areas. Birds also occur in open canopy 
forests with low vegetation and in riverine forests (Juniper & Parr 
1998, p. 281). Despite trapping pressure, birds still occur in mature 
lowland forests near settlements (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Marsden 
1992, p. 11), but they are rarely seen near human habitation (Smiet 
1985, p. 189). Marsden (1992, pp. 9, 11) found cockatoos to be rare or 
irregular in other habitats, including plantations, grassland, rank 
scrub, and agricultural lands. The species previously occurred in 
coastal areas (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281), before land was converted 
to human uses (FAO 1981, as cited in Marsden 1992, p. 7). Small numbers 
of salmon-crested cockatoo have been observed in forested hills on 
Ambon. No other information was available on the habitat of this 
species on Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua.
    Topography. Seram is a densely wooded island (Metz 1998, p. 10) of 
18,625 km\2\ (7,189 mi\2\) (Smiet 1985, p. 183)--about the size of New 
Jersey (Morrison 2001, p. 1). The topography is

[[Page 56773]]

extremely variable and the interior of the island is rugged and mostly 
mountainous (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies between 
latitudes 2\o\ 46' and 3\o\ 53' south of the Equator. It is 
approximately 340 kilometers (km) (211 miles (mi)) long and 55-70 km 
(34-43 mi) wide in the center. Its highest point is Gunung Binaiya at 
approximately 3,027 m (9,929 ft) above sea level. It is the second 
largest island in the Moluccas. This group of about 1,000 islands is 
also known as the Spice Islands, because they include the original home 
of both nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and cloves (Syzgium aromaticum) 
(Edwards 1993, p. 1).
    Forests. Seram's wet climate supports mainly evergreen forests 
(Marsden 1998, p. 606). The alluvial plains originally supported tall 
lowland forests characterized by the only endemic dipterocarp on the 
island, Shorea selanica (`meranti'), and also Canarium, Elaeocarpus 
sphaericus, Calophyllum, Intsia, and Myristica (Coates & Bishop 1997, 
pp. 16-17; Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 7). Shorea selanica has developed 
remarkable dominance in the lowland forests of north Seram, 
representing about 30 percent of individual trees and 76 percent of the 
basal area (Edwards et al. 1993, p. 66). The forest is relatively open-
crowned with a sparse understory, with the floor being swept clean by 
floods during the wet season. Along the major rivers, the lowland 
forest is characterized by Octomeles sumatrana, Eucalyptus deglupta, 
Pometia pinnata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus, Litsea, and Eugenia 
(Coates & Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17).
    Climate. Most of Seram receives between 2,500 and 3,000 millimeters 
(mm) (97.5 and 117 inches (in)) of rain per year, with more in the east 
and northeast. The long monsoonal seasons (Metz 1998, p. 11; White & 
Bruce 1986, p. 24) and mountainous terrain affect the amount of 
rainfall. Annual and monthly rainfall is not uniform and varies by 
region (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies outside the main 
zone of cyclonic storms (Coates & Bishop 1997, p. 22). The lowlands 
have a humid tropical climate with temperatures at sea level of 25-30 
\o\Celsius (C) (77-86 \o\Fahrenheit (F)). Temperature decreases with 
altitude, with a fall of approximately 6 \o\C (10.8 \o\F) for every 
rise of 1,000 m (3,280 ft), leading to a marked temperature gradient 
within the mountain areas (Edwards 1993, p. 6).
    Land use. The human population of Seram is concentrated in low-
lying areas along the coast and in the west. The mountainous interior 
supports very few villages (Edwards 1993, p. 7). The majority of Seram 
is lowland forest or montane forest (see Table 1). While only about 11 
percent of the island has been converted to agricultural lands, 
settlements, and plantations or is considered unproductive, logging 
concessions cover nearly 50 percent of the island. About 85 percent of 
Seram lies below 600 m (1,968 ft) and another 10 percent lies between 
600 and 1,000 m (1,968 and 3,280 ft). Within this elevation where 
cockatoos occur, ``...most of the forest has been classified as 
production or conversion forest, categories that permit land clearing 
and forest disturbance'' (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230).

              Table 1. Habitat and land use for Seram and established and proposed protected areas
(data are based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 1990) (NP=National Park; NR=Nature Reserve) (Kinnaird
                                              et al. 2003, p. 230).
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                                                                       Area
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Habitat/Land Use                                                                       Proposed Wai Bula
                                         Seram            Manusela NP      Gunung Sahuwai NR          NR
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lowland Forest                    14,026.5            1,522.5             118.9 km\2\ (45.9   561.8 km\2\ (216.9
                                   km\2\(5,414.2       km\2\(587.7         mi\2\)              mi\2\)
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mangrove Forest                   77.6 km\2\ (30      --                  --                  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\)                                                      mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Montane Forest                    1,065.3 km\2\       693.9 km\2\ (267.8  --                  --
                                   (411.2 mi\2\)       mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Swamp Forest                      203.5 km\2\ (78.6   --                  --                  14.6 km\2\ (5.6
                                   mi\2\)                                                      mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water Body                        1.2 mi\2\(3.0       --                  --                  --
                                   km\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Agriculture                       789.1 km\2\ (304.6  50 km\2\ (19.3      --                  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)                                  mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plantation                        22.0 km\2\ (8.5     --                  --                  --
                                   mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Settlement                        21.3 km\2\ (8.2     3.2 km\2\ (1.2      --                  0.5 km\2\ (0.2
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)                                  mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unproductive Lands                1,082.2 km\2\       53.6 km\2\ (20.7    3.9 km\2\ (1.5      --
                                   (417.7 mi\2\)       mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              Total               17,288.7 km\2\      2,323.2 km\2\       122.8 km\2\ (47.4   596.1 km\2\ (230.1
                                   (6,676.0 mi\2\)     (896.8 mi\2\)       mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

    BLI (2008b, p. 2) has identified five IBAs that include the salmon-
crested cockatoo. A site is recognized as an IBA when it meets criteria 
``...based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable to 
global extinction or whose populations are otherwise irreplaceable.'' 
These key sites for conservation are small enough to be conserved in 
their entirety and large enough to support self-sustaining populations 
of the key bird species. IBAs are a way to identify conservation 
priorities (BLI 2008j, pp. 1-2). The following briefly describes the 
IBAs for the salmon-crested cockatoo:
    Gunung Sahuwai. Located on the western peninsula of Seram, Gunung 
Sahuwai contains 122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) of land that was declared a 
Nature Reserve on November 30, 1993 (SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 805/Kpts-
II/1993) (BLI 2008c, p. 2). The Nature Reserve contains 96.8 percent 
lowland forest and 3.2 percent unproductive lands (see Table 1) 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). The number of cockatoos here is 
unknown. The coastal area contains 14 settlements. Most people work as 
farmers and fishermen. The main commodities are cloves, nutmeg, and 
coconut for copra. The local people hunt and collect forest products. 
Conservation concerns relate to the clearance of natural habitat for 
plantation, shifting agriculture, and collection of birds (BLI 2008c, 
pp. 1-2).

[[Page 56774]]

    Gunung Salahutu. The habitat is forest, and the topography is hilly 
up to 1,038 m (3,405 ft). The cockatoo was found in this area at one 
time, but is probably extinct here now. The coastal area contains two 
villages. Most of the people work as dry land farmers and fishermen. 
The main commodities are clove, nutmeg, cacao, and marine products. 
Conservation concerns relate to forest clearance for plantation, 
firewood collection, and hunting of animals for consumption or pets 
(BLI 2008d, pp. 1-2).
    Manusela. This area consists of forests and wetlands (BLI 2008e, 
pp. 1-2). Manusela National Park is located in the central part of 
Seram and stretches from the north coast to within 5 km (3 mi) of the 
south coast (Edwards 1993, p. 6). It is 2,323.2 km\2\ (896.8 mi\2\) in 
size and covers approximately 10 to 11 percent of Seram (BLI 2008e, p. 
2; Bowler & Taylor 1993, p. 158; Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Marsden 
1992, p. 7; Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 3). It was declared a national 
park in 1982 (SK Menteri Pertanian No. 736/Mentan/X/1982 on October 14, 
1982) (BLI 2008e, p. 2). Based on landsat images from late 1989 and 
early 1990, habitat and land use for Manusela National Park can be 
summarized as: 65.5 percent lowland forest; 29.9 percent montane 
forest; and 4.6 percent agriculture, settlement, and unproductive lands 
(see Table 1) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). Approximately, 26 percent 
of the park is above 1,000 m (3,608 ft), an altitude where the salmon-
crested cockatoo generally does not occur, and only 27 percent is below 
500 m (1,640 ft), an altitude preferred by the salmon-crested cockatoo 
(Marsden 1992, p. 7). A road has been built through the park, which 
increases the risks of logging (Metz 1998, p. 10). Five villages of 
indigenous people exist as an enclave of the park. Most of the people 
work as dry land farmers; they also hunt and collect forest products, 
such as sago, rattan, resin, eaglewood, and parrots (BlI 2008e, p. 1). 
In 1980, 999 people lived within the park boundaries, and 19,102 lived 
within 10 km (6 mi) of its boundaries (Smiet & Siallagan 1981, App. 6). 
Clearing of the land for agriculture and gardens has resulted in a 
patchwork of cleared fields, secondary vegetation (including large 
bamboo thickets), old growth forests, and undisturbed primary forests. 
Conservation concerns relate to logging, road development, encroachment 
by plantation companies, mining (MacKinnon & Artha 1981; Monk et al. 
1997, as cited in BLI 2008e, p. 2), shifting agriculture, and parrot 
catching for trade (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2).
    Pegunungan Taunusa. The habitat is forest and the area has a 
mountain with the highest peak in Seram. The southern coastal area 
contains five villages. Most of the people work as farmers and 
fishermen. Main products are coconut for copra, clove, and cacao (BLI 
2008f, p. 1). The Service was unable to find information on the number 
of salmon-crested cockatoos in this area or activities that may be 
affecting the conservation of the species in Pegunungan Taunusa.
    Wai Bula. The habitat is forest in northeastern Seram. BLI (2008f, 
p. 1) estimates that Wae Wufa, an area inside Wai Bula that is primary 
lowland and lower montane evergreen forests, has around 40-60 salmon-
crested cockatoos. Approximately 596.1 km\2\ (230.1 mi\2\) of Wai Bula 
was proposed as a Nature Reserve in 1981, but the area has never been 
officially designated as a reserve (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). Land 
use for the proposed Nature Reserve can be summarized as follows: 94.2 
percent lowland forest; 1.6 percent mangrove forest; 2.4 percent swamp 
forest; and 2.5 percent agriculture and settlement (see Table 1). Based 
on density estimates derived from surveys in western Seram, researchers 
estimated that the area provides habitat for a minimum of 2,500 
cockatoos (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230, 233) (see Factor A for 
discussion). This estimate differs significantly from the number of 
cockatoos estimated by BLI to occur inside Wae Wufa. We were unable to 
reconcile these estimates because we could not find information on the 
area of Wae Wufa, how much of the cockatoo's suitable habitat within 
Wai Bula occurs in Wae Wufa, and the basis for the BLI estimate. The 
coast contains four villages. Most people work as farmers and 
fishermen. The main plantation products are coconut for copra, cacao, 
and coffee. The conservation concern relates to logging (BLI 2008g, pp. 
1-2).

Natural History

    Behavior. The salmon-crested cockatoo is most active in early 
morning and late afternoon (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Metz et al. 
2007, p. 36), calling loudly when leaving and returning to roost. The 
cockatoo's call is a wailing cry, which can be heard from a distance of 
1 km (0.6 mi), and roosts can easily be located due to the noise. The 
species is shy and flies off when disturbed. Birds move slowly through 
the canopy in the early morning and are usually not seen or heard 
during the heat of the day. They are found in groups of up to 16 birds, 
although the size of non-breeding flocks appear to have been 
dramatically reduced due to the recent population decline (Juniper & 
Parr 1998, p. 281). They fly using a few rapid wing beats, followed by 
gliding, and then a few more wing beats (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper 
& Parr 1998, p. 281).
    Food. This species feeds on fruit of the kenari tree (Canarium 
commune, C. vulgare, and C. indicum) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37), nuts, 
seeds, berries, and insects (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, 
p. 281). Their abundance is positively related to the density of 
strangling figs, a potentially important food resource (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 233). Research by O'Brien et al. (1998, p. 668) showed that 
figs may be a keystone plant resource for many fruit-eating birds. On 
the average, figs contain calcium levels 3.2 times higher than other 
fruits, promoting eggshell deposition and bone growth. Salmon-crested 
cockatoos are suspected of taking Pandanus spp. fruits (Bishop in 
prep., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 1665). They pick larvae from fallen, 
rotting tree trunks (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37). They also eat young 
coconuts (Cocos nucifera) by chewing through the tough outer covering 
to get at the pulp and water inside (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & 
Parr 1998, p. 281; Wallace 1864, p. 279). In general, island cockatoos 
are thought to need to exploit all the available food in order to 
maintain a healthy population because islands typically contain fewer 
plant species and the quantity of food is restricted by an islands' 
relatively small size (Cameron 2007, p. 83).
    Breeding. Its favored nest tree is Octomeles sumatranus (Kinnaird 
et al. 2003, p. 230). During times of nest building, brooding, and 
fledging, birds stay close to the nest tree (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36). 
Courtship display can last up to 20 minutes, with the male and female 
perched in the top of an emergent or dead forest tree, raising and 
lowering their crests, fanning their large face and neck feathers 
forward to increase the size of the head (Cameron 2007, p. 57), calling 
loudly, breaking twigs, and making short, weak, fluttering flights. The 
nest is a high hole in a mature tree (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281). The 
salmon-crested cockatoo removes the bark immediately surrounding the 
entrance to help prevent predators, such as snakes or monitor lizards, 
from gaining access to the eggs or chicks, and may also clear the 
surrounding foliage perhaps to have a better view for the brooding hen. 
The nest site is fiercely guarded from competitors, such as the 
Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37).

[[Page 56775]]

    Little is known about seasonality and breeding biology of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228), or 
other demographic information, such as reproductive effort and success 
and age-specific mortality rates--information that is important to 
determine where the primary weak points in the life equation lie 
(Snyder et al. 2000, p. 9). The cockatoo is thought to breed between 
July and August or September, and probably a second time at the 
beginning of the year (Metz & Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Stresemann (1914, 
p. 86) observed a pair in a nesting cavity about 25 m (82 ft) up the 
truck of a living tree in early May. The cockatoo lines the cavity with 
wood chips, and usually lays two white eggs, although only one is 
raised (Metz & Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Both parents help to incubate 
the eggs during the 28-day incubation period. Young birds take 4-5 
years to reach maturity (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281).

Population Estimates

    Seram--historical population estimates. Historically, there are few 
quantitative observations of this species in the wild. In 1864, Wallace 
(1864, p. 279) described the salmon-crested cockatoo as ``abundant'' on 
Seram. In 1911, Stresemann (1914, p. 86) reported that the species was 
fairly common in coastal regions. The species was regarded as locally 
common in 1970 (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281). During 1980 and 1981 
(Forshaw 1989, p. 141), Smiet (1985, p. 189) observed that this species 
was locally common in primary forests up to 900 m (2,952 ft) in the 
interior and in undisturbed forests, where 10 to 16 birds were seen 
congregating in roosting trees. He did not see any birds on the western 
part of the island, although the cockatoo was said to be common there 
until about 1970. In 1980, small flocks were observed in the south of 
the island (White & Bruce 1986, p. 212), and cockatoos were frequently 
seen throughout Manusela National Park below 900 m, except in the 
southern part of the Mual Plains in the center of the park where they 
were not common (Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 9). In September 1983, 
Bishop (1992, p. 2) observed four cockatoos in secondary woodland in 
southwest Seram.
    Rangers at the Manusela National Park commented on a dramatic 
decline in the species in the mid-1980s (Collar & Andrew 1988, p. 69). 
By 1987, it was the rarest parrot in Manusela National Park (Bishop 
1992, p. 2). Due to the international pet trade, Bishop considered the 
species to be endangered and in need of critical management to avoid 
imminent extinction (Bishop 1992, p. 1). Between July 20 and September 
25, 1987, an Operation Raleigh team found the species to be ``very 
scarce and absent from large tracts of suitable habitat'' in Manusela 
National Park (Bowler 1988, p. 6). During 40 days of field work, they 
made 54 sightings, resulting in a maximum of 20 individual birds in 
prime habitat. In addition, birds were observed either singly or in 
pairs, never in flocks. Encounter rates were the lowest of any parrot 
species at 0.3 birds per hour in lowland rain forests around Solea at 
about 100 m (328 ft) and 0.1 per hour in the Kineka area at 600-900 m 
(1,968-2,952 ft) (Bowler 1988, p. 6; Bowler & Taylor 1989, p. 17). 
Marsden (1992, pp. 11-12) suggested that the densities of cockatoos, 
which Bowler and Taylor found in the Manusela National Park enclave, 
may be naturally low because the forest has been heavily disturbed and 
the area is at the upper end of the species' altitudinal range. He 
found it difficult to relate Bowler and Taylor's low figures for 
lowland forests around Solea to what he found in 1989 (see below). BLI 
also questioned the validity of the numbers, because Bowler and Taylor 
are now judged to have worked mainly at higher elevations in Manusela 
(BLI 2001, pp. 1664, 1668). Metz (1998, p. 10) suggested that the 
stronghold of this cockatoo is likely on Seram, almost exclusively 
outside of the borders of the national park.
    During 5 weeks from December 19, 1989, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-8; 
Marsden 1998, p. 606) collected field data in Manusela National Park 
and in lowland habitats in central and northeast Seram, using the 
variable circular plot method to estimate densities of the salmon-
crested cockatoo. Encounter rates were 1.0 bird per hour in primary 
forests, 2.5 birds in disturbed primary forests, and 0.4 birds in 
secondary and in recently logged forests. While cockatoo densities were 
similar in primary (9.1 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\)) and disturbed 
primary forests (9.8 birds), densities were lower in secondary forests 
(6.4 birds), and much lower in recently logged forests (1.9 birds), 
suggesting that large-scale logging might adversely affect the species' 
population.
    Between July and September 1996, the Wai Bula '96 (a conservation 
expedition from Cambridge University and Universitas Pattimura, Ambon) 
found the salmon-crested cockatoo to be widely dispersed in northeast 
Seram in the Wae Fufa Valley (primary lowland and lower montane 
evergreen forests) and in degraded coastal forests near Hoti (coastal 
secondary lowland forests), where pairs and small flocks were a common 
sight. They suggested that the bulk of the population probably occurs 
in eastern Seram (Isherwood et al. 1998, p. 18). Juniper & Parr (1998, 
p. 281) reported that the world population was ``thought still to be 
above 8,000.''
    Seram--recent population estimates. The most recent research 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232) estimated the total salmon-crested 
cockatoo population to be 110,385 birds (with confidence limits of a 
minimum 62,416 and a maximum of 195,242). Based on the research 
assumptions (see below), we agree with BLI (2001, p. 1664) that 
``...the figure of 62,400 is chosen as the appropriate population 
figure.''
    These numbers were generated by joint population surveys conducted 
by the Wildlife Conservation Society Indonesia Program, BLI Indonesia 
Program, and Pelastarian Hutan Dan Konservasi Alam, Ministry of 
Forestry, Government of Indonesia in May-September 1998. Cockatoo 
censuses were conducted at seven sites in western and central Seram 
using line-transect methods (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 228, 230, 234). 
Five of the sites were considered primary lowland forest and two had 
been previously logged or were disturbed by humans (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 228). Cockatoos were observed at all sites as single 
individuals or pairs. Estimates of density varied widely among 
locations, ranging from 0.93 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\) at Kawa to 
17.25 birds per 1 km\2\ at Roho. The mean density was 7.87 birds per 1 
km\2\, which was considered indicative of all sites because it included 
estimates from primary and logged forests. The researchers were unable 
to complete the census before the outbreak of civil war; thus, data 
from the western part of Seram were used to estimate the number of 
cockatoos on all of Seram.
    The estimated population was generated by working with GIS-based 
estimates of lowland forest habitat on Seram (14,026 km\2\ (5,414.2 
mi\2\)) below 600 m (1,968 ft) and assuming that all lowland forests 
provide adequate habitat for cockatoos and that densities remain 
constant across the island (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232). Because 
these assumptions are unlikely, Kinnaird (2000, p. 15) explained the 
scenarios considered by the researchers. Cockatoos are fairly tolerant 
of degraded habitat, but they still need nesting trees and have a 
preference for areas with lots of large strangling figs. So, the first 
scenario looked at involved the number and extent of logging 
concessions operating on Seram during the 10-year-period from 1989-
1999, which resulted in a reduction of 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of 
lowland forest habitat for cockatoos.

[[Page 56776]]

The population estimate still hovered between 90,000 and 100,000 birds. 
The second scenario looked at continued logging and habitat loss during 
the next decade, projecting that the population size would decline by 
another 10 percent. These estimates may have underestimated cockatoo 
population size because many logging concessions are not working at 
full capacity. On the other hand, the estimates ignored additional 
losses due to the capturing of birds for the pet trade. The population 
estimate also ignored the variability in how logging companies harvest 
their concessions (i.e., greater or less than the legal maximum 
intensity). If logging concessions harvest timber in a conventional 
manner of up to 1,000 hectare (ha) (2,470 acre (ac)) per year, Kinnaird 
et al. (2008, p. 233) assumed that cockatoos will persist but at 
possibly lower densities.
    In 1985, Smiet (1985, pp. 193-194) suggested that the relative 
resilience of most Moluccan parrots under trade pressure and habitat 
destruction can be attributed to a combination of factors, including: 
(1) A great reproductive capacity (especially in the smaller species); 
(2) adaptability to habitat alteration (which tends to provide a 
relative abundance of flowering and fruiting plants); (3) persistence 
of some original, undisturbed habitat; and (4) island isolation and 
lack of predators, parasites, and competitive species. Metz (2005, p. 
34), however, cautioned that the current population estimate should not 
be a ``cause for complacency.'' He suggested that the number of birds 
capable of breeding, or the breeding success rate, might be low for 
this species since: they have a long life span, and many birds might be 
past breeding age; there is a very high poaching pressure and trappers 
mostly take adult birds, which depletes the number of breeding birds; 
and the salmon-crested cockatoo has a slow reproductive cycle and 
unknown, but possibly low, fledging success rate. These opinions point 
out the need for further research on this species to better understand 
its population size and its ability to adapt to the habitat destruction 
and trade that is occurring on Seram.
    Ambon. Very small numbers of salmon-crested cockatoos are thought 
to occur in remaining natural forests in the more remote regions of 
Ambon (Poulsen & Jepson 1996, p. 160). While Smiet (1985, p. 189) lived 
on the island from 1980 to 1981, he did not see the species there; 
however, he wrote that the species was said to be common on Ambon until 
about 10 years ago. In 1992, Marsden (1992, pp. 12-13) reported seeing 
eight salmon-crested cockatoos and three unidentified cockatoos during 
brief searches of remaining forest patches on Ambon. He suggested that 
most free flying salmon-crested cockatoos on Ambon may be wild birds, 
either resident and possibly breeding or visiting birds from Seram. 
Local people told him that cockatoos were still present in the area, 
but rare in other forested areas on the island. Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, pp. 159-160) confirmed that wild populations of salmon-crested 
cockatoos occur on Ambon. On May 28 and June 11, 1995, they observed 
six to eight cockatoos, in forested hills behind Hila on the north 
coast of the Hitu Peninsula, overlooking a forested valley at about 300 
m (984 ft) and in forest edge around shifting cultivation at about 500 
m (1,640 ft).

Conservation Status

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is protected from capture and trade 
under Indonesian laws (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5, 1990, and Law 
No. 7, 1999) (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14; Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). 
Intentional violations may lead to imprisonment of up to 5 years and 
fines up to 100 million IDR (Indonesian rupiah) (which amounts to 
approximately 10,000 USD (U.S. dollar)). Negligent violations may lead 
to imprisonment of up to 1 year and fines up to 50 million IDR (5,000 
USD). The government may seize and confiscate specimens of protected 
animals. The Department of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation is 
responsible for implementing the law, and the Natural Resources 
Conservation Agency, working with police, Customs, and other 
enforcement agencies, is responsible for enforcing the law (Shepherd et 
al. 2004, p. 4).
    The species is listed on the IUCN (International Union for 
Conservation of Nature) Red List as `Vulnerable' because it has 
suffered a rapid population decline as a result of trapping for the pet 
bird trade and because of deforestation in its small range. BLI (2004, 
p. 1) projects that the decline will continue and perhaps accelerate. 
Current populations are estimated at 62,400 individuals (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 232), with a decreasing population trend; the decline for 
the past and the future 10 years or 3 generations is estimated at 30 to 
49 percent (BLI 2008b, p. 1). The current trend is justified by the 
suspected rapid decline of the species due to ongoing and prolific 
capture for the domestic pet trade (BLI 2008b, p. 2). Ongoing threats 
are habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-
cutting, agriculture, infrastructure development (settlement and 
hydroelectric projects), and harvesting (hunting and gathering for the 
domestic and international pet trade) (BLI 2004, pp. 1-2).
    The cockatoo is also protected by CITES, one of the most important 
means of controlling international trade in wild animals and plants. 
CITES is an international agreement where countries work together to 
ensure that international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants is 
not detrimental to the survival of wild populations by regulating 
import, export, and re-export. Although almost all Psittaciformes 
species were included in CITES Appendix II in 1981 (CITES 2008a, p. 1), 
the salmon-crested cockatoo was transferred to CITES Appendix I 
effective January 18, 1990, because populations were declining rapidly 
due to uncontrolled trapping for the pet bird trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 
1-7). An Appendix-I listing includes species threatened with extinction 
whose trade is permitted only under exceptional circumstances, which 
generally precludes commercial trade. The import of an Appendix-I 
species requires the issuance of both an import and export permit. 
Import permits are issued only if findings are made that the import 
would be for purposes that are not detrimental to the survival of the 
species and that the specimen will not be used for primarily commercial 
purposes (CITES Article III(3)). Export permits are issued only if 
findings are made that the specimen was legally acquired and trade is 
not detrimental to the survival of the species (CITES Article III(2)). 
The United States and Indonesia, along with 173 other countries, are 
members to CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1).
    The import of salmon-crested cockatoos into the United States is 
also regulated by the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901 
et seq.), which was enacted on October 23, 1992. The purpose of the 
WBCA is to promote the conservation of exotic birds by ensuring that 
all trade involving the United States is sustainable and is not 
detrimental to the species. Permits may be issued to allow import of 
listed birds for scientific research, zoological breeding or display, 
or personal pet purposes when certain criteria are met. The Service may 
approve cooperative breeding programs and subsequent import permits 
under such programs. Wild-caught birds may be imported into the United 
States if they are subject to Service-approved management plans for 
sustainable use. At this time, the salmon-crested cockatoo is not part 
of a Service-approved cooperative breeding program and does not have an 
approved

[[Page 56777]]

management plan for wild-caught birds (FWS 2008, p. 1).
    The IUCN Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000-2004 for 
Parrots (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66) identified a need to clarify the 
status of the salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild, including: (1) 
determining the species' relative abundance in each habitat type and 
(2) collecting information on the size and distribution of habitat 
types, trapping, timber extraction, and breeding success of cockatoos 
in primary and secondary forests because it is unknown if the salmon-
crested cockatoo will survive in degraded secondary forests in the long 
term. At present, inadequate information on the species, its habitat, 
and the effects of human activities on the species makes it difficult 
to make recommendations on regional development, such as reserve 
boundaries, land-use zoning, and possible new provincial forestry and 
agriculture policies, to ensure the species' survival. The information 
would also provide a baseline for monitoring and determining the degree 
to which trade affects the status of this species (Snyder et al. 2000, 
pp. 66, 69).

Species Information and Factors Affecting the Salmon-crested Cockatoo

    Under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533(a)(1)) and 
regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act 
(50 CFR part 424), we may list a species as threatened and endangered 
on the basis of five factors. The five factors are: (A) Present or 
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or 
range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted 
based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination. 
Below is the Service's five-factor analysis for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.

Foreseeable Future

    Although section 3 of the Act uses the term ``foreseeable future'' 
in the definition of a threatened species, it does not define the term. 
For purpose of this proposed rule, we defined ``foreseeable future'' to 
be the extent to which, given the amount and quality of available data, 
we can anticipate events or effects, or extrapolate trends of a threat, 
such that reliable predictions can be made concerning the future of the 
species. In the analysis of the five factors below, we consider and 
describe how the foreseeable future relates to the status of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in view of population trends and threats to the 
species.

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of the Species' Habitat or Range

    The lowland forest habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo is being 
impacted by logging (including the failure to use wise logging 
practices during selective logging), illegal logging, conversion of 
forests to agriculture and plantations, transmigration of people, oil 
exploration, and infrastructure development.
    Logging. Commercial timber extraction is listed by the IUCN Red 
List to be a continuing major threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo, 
with a medium impact and a slow decline of the species (BLI 2008b, p. 
3). Research that looked at species-area relationship suggested that 
deforestation affects endemic bird species restricted to single islands 
most severely (Brooks et al. 1997, p. 392).
    In Indonesia as a whole, between 2000 and 2005, forest cover 
declined by more than 90,000 km\2\ (34,740 mi\2\). Lowland areas, which 
offer important habitat for Indonesia's cockatoos, have been the most 
severely impacted (Cameron 2007, p. 177; Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 1 p. 
2). On the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesian islands to the 
far west of Seram), the World Bank predicted that all lowland rain 
forests outside of protected areas would be degraded by 2005 and 2010, 
respectively (Rhee et al. 2004, p. xviii). In many areas of Indonesia, 
most commercially valuable forests have already been logged. Thus, 
major commercial logging enterprises are now focused on islands in 
Maluku Province, including Seram (BLI 2008k, p. 6; Smiet 1985, p. 181).
    The impact of logging has steadily increased on Seram, with logging 
becoming more intense during the 1990s (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Deforestation 
in some areas has been extensive through selective logging of Shorea 
spp. (Ellen 1993, p. 201), such that by 2001, about a fifth of the 
original forest cover had been cleared (Morrison 2001, p. 1), with most 
of the coastal areas converted to grassland, agriculture, plantations, 
or scrub (Marsden 1992, p. 7). Although large areas of contiguous, 
intact forests remain (Morrison 2001, p. 1), 50 percent of forest, 
which are spread over the island, are under logging concessions. The 
north dipterocarp forests are still dominated by the endemic Shorea 
selanica, a tree especially vulnerable to logging as it grows tall and 
straight and is much favored by Western and Japanese markets (Edwards 
1993, p. 9). Once the primary forest is logged, experience on nearby 
Indonesian islands shows that secondary forest is generally converted 
to other uses or logged again rather than being allowed to return to 
primary forest (Barr 2001, pp. 64, 67; Grimmett & Sumarauw 2000, p. 8; 
Jepson et al. 2001, p. 859).
    Selective logging is the primary technique for the extraction of 
timber in Indonesia (BLI 2008k, p. 6). In selective logging, the most 
valuable trees from a forest are commercially extracted (Johns 1988, p. 
31), and the forest is left to regenerate naturally or usually with 
some management until subsequently logged again. Johns (1988, p. 31), 
looking at a West Malaysian dipterocarp forest, found that mechanized 
selective logging in tropical rain forests, which usually removes a 
small percent of timber trees, causes severe incidental damage. The 
extraction of 3.3 percent of trees destroyed 50.9 percent of the 
forest. He concluded that this type of logging reduced the availability 
of food sources for frugivores (fruit-eaters). Edwards (1993, p. 9) 
observed a similar problem on Seram. Timber companies, operating under 
a selective logging system, caused considerable damage to the 
surrounding forest, both to trees and soil. Forests selectively logged 
15 years before had an open structure with skeletons of incidentally 
killed trees, serious gulley erosion, and vegetation on waterlogged 
sites that had been compacted by heavy vehicles. Also, commercial 
logging uses a network of roads, which can lead to secondary problems 
(BLI 2008k, p. 6), such as providing access to trappers of parrots.
    Since selective logging targets mature trees, it can have a 
disproportionate impact on hole-nesters, such as cockatoos, because 
fewer nest sites remain (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Also, unsustainable logging 
practices that destroy the forest canopy reduce habitat available to 
the salmon-crested cockatoo. Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) found 
that the abundance of cockatoos was positively related to the density 
of its favored nest tree, Octomeles sumatranus, and strangling figs, a 
potentially important food resource. These trees would be impacted by 
logging, emphasizing the need to implement wise logging practices, such 
as those based on reduced-impact logging techniques. However, these 
techniques, which are recommended under Indonesia's selective logging 
system, are seldom applied because of the lack of control over 
harvesting practices, limited

[[Page 56778]]

understanding of how to implement the measures, and high financial 
costs (Sist et al. 1998, p. 1). Specifically, the pre- and post-logging 
inventories are not conducted properly or are not reported truthfully; 
over-cutting above the annual plan occurs; frequent cutting outside 
approved boundaries occurs; re-logging is more frequent than 
recommended; and supervision by the Ministry of Forestry has been 
ineffective (Thompson 1996, p. 9).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is dependent on little-disturbed 
lowland forests. In a field study conducted from December 19, 1989, for 
5 weeks, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-13) looked at the distribution, 
abundance, and habitat preferences of the salmon-crested cockatoo on 
Seram. Results suggested that while cockatoo densities were similar in 
primary and disturbed primary forests, densities were lower in 
secondary forests, and much lower in recently logged forests (Marsden 
1992, p. 9). In total, 84 cockatoos were recorded at 132 stations, 
either singly or in pairs, on 34 occasions. Groups of more than 4 birds 
were recorded 3 times, with the maximum group size of 10. Although 
cockatoos were found at different densities in different land-use 
types, more cockatoos were present where habitat alterations occurred 
on a small scale. Cockatoos tended to be recorded in mature, open-
canopied lowland forests with some very large, tall trees and some low 
vegetation. Most significantly, Marsden found that there may have been 
a reduction of the cockatoo population by about 700 birds for each 100 
km\2\ (86 mi\2\) of Seram's primary forests that had been selectively 
logged in the last 6 years. Similarly, the conversion of 100 km\2\ of 
locally disturbed secondary forests to plantation could result in the 
loss of around 600 birds (Marsden 1992, p. 12).
    Marsden (1998, pp. 605-611) also looked at changes in bird 
abundance following selective logging on Seram. Field work was 
conducted in forested areas in the central and northeast parts of the 
island. Logged forests usually had sparser canopy and mid-level 
vegetation cover and denser ground cover than unlogged forests (Marsden 
1998, pp. 605, 607-608). Using a point count method to estimate 
population densities, Marsden (1998, p. 608; 1999, p. 380) found that 
salmon-crested cockatoo density estimates in unlogged forests below 300 
m (984 ft) were more than double those in logged forests. Because the 
cockatoo is caught for the pet trade, Marsden was unable to separate 
the effects of habitat change, such as loss of nest holes, from 
possible effects of logging on capture rates (for example, increased 
accessibility to trappers) (Marsden 1998, p. 610). Although Kinnaird et 
al. (2003, p. 233) found the highest cockatoo densities in primary 
forest habitat with good structure and lower densities in logged or 
disturbed sites, they did not find a statistically significant 
difference in cockatoo densities between logged and unlogged forests. 
They surmised this may have been because of the intensity of logging 
or, more likely, reflected the mosaic of habitat types found within 
their sampling sites. They speculated that there is a continuum of 
cockatoo densities in logged forests depending on the intensity of 
logging and access provided to trappers.
    Logging concessions are spread over the island, except there are no 
concessions in Gunung Sahuai Nature Reserve and only 15 percent of 
Manusela National Park is under concessions (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 
231). About half the island (8,271 km\2\ (3,193 mi\2\)) is held within 
logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within lowland habitat 
favored by the salmon-crested cockatoo (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 227, 
233). This means that less than 30 percent of the island's lowland 
forests (5,096 km\2\ (1,967 mi\2\)) is unoccupied by logging 
concessions. In 1998, Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) were unable 
to find out the area of land scheduled for logging. However, Kinnaird 
(2000, p. 15) was able to obtain information from the Ministry of 
Forestry that showed 12 logging concessions have been operating on 
Seram during the 10-year period from 1989-1999. If the concessions have 
been logged at a maximum intensity of 10 km\2\ (3.86 mi\2\)/year/
concession and that logging was conducted in a conventional manner that 
results in 70 percent damage to the canopy, lowland forest habitat for 
cockatoos would be reduced by 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\), or 8.5 percent, 
in 10 years. The researcher concluded in 2000 that overall the loss of 
habitat has not reached a level where it is perceived as a serious 
threat to cockatoos. However, the cockatoo remains under threat 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 15). We have no reason to believe that the effects 
of logging on the species will be ameliorated in the foreseeable 
future, but may increase because commercial logging enterprises are now 
focused on the Moluku Province, including Seram.
    The researchers were forced to leave the island because of civil 
unrest. They suggested that the pressure for land conversion will 
accelerate dramatically once social and economic stability returns to 
Seram, especially in the lowlands, and this will be made worse by the 
1999 regional autonomy laws that allow for local authorities to 
determine licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural 
resources. They concluded that the proper management of Seram's logging 
concessions would determine the future of the salmon-crested cockatoo 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 234).
    Approximately 14 percent of Seram's forests (or 11.5 percent of 
lowland forests) are protected in Manusela National Park (2,216.4 km\2\ 
(855.5 mi\2\)) and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve (118.9 km\2\ (45.9 
mi\2\)). In Manusela National Park, 15 percent of the forest is within 
logging concessions. In 1981, Smiet and Siallagan (1981, pp. 11-12, 22) 
reported that large patches of forest in the coastal region of the Mual 
Plains had been disturbed by logging activities--forest