Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Endangered Status for Flying Earwig Hawaiian Damselfly (Megalagrion nesiotes, 32490-32510 [E9-16087]

Agencies

• Fish and Wildlife Service
• DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

[Federal Register: July 8, 2009 (Volume 74, Number 129)]
[Proposed Rules]               
[Page 32490-32510]
From the Federal Register Online via GPO Access [wais.access.gpo.gov]
[DOCID:fr08jy09-31]                         

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[FWS-R1-ES-2009-0036; 92210-1111-0000-B2]
RIN 1018-AV47

 
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed 
Endangered Status for Flying Earwig Hawaiian Damselfly (Megalagrion 
nesiotes) and Pacific Hawaiian Damselfly (M. pacificum) Throughout 
Their Ranges

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to 
list two species of Hawaiian damselflies, the flying earwig Hawaiian 
damselfly (Megalagrion nesiotes) and the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly (M. 
pacificum), as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act). If we finalize this rule as proposed, it would extend 
the Act's protections to these species. We have determined that 
critical habitat for these two Hawaiian damselflies is prudent, but not 
determinable at this time.

DATES: We will accept comments received on or before September 8, 2009. 
We must receive requests for public hearings, in writing, at the 
address shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section by August 
24, 2009.

ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
     Federal eRulemaking Portal: https://www.regulations.gov. 
Follow the instructions for submitting comments to Docket No. FWS-R1-
ES-2009-0036.

[[Page 32491]]

     U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public Comments Processing, 
Attn: FWS-R1-ES-2009-0036; Division of Policy and Directives 
Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, 
Suite 222; Arlington, VA 22203.
    We will post all comments on https://www.regulations.gov. This 
generally means that we will post any personal information you provide 
us (see the Public Comments section below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Gina Shultz, Deputy Field Supervisor, 
Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Box 
50088, Honolulu, HI 96850; telephone 808-792-9400; facsimile 808-792-
9581. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) 
may call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Public Comments

    We intend that any final action resulting from this rule will be 
based on the best scientific and commercial data available and be as 
accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request comments 
or suggestions on this proposed rule from the public, other concerned 
governmental agencies, the scientific community, industry, or any other 
interested party concerning this proposed rule. We particularly seek 
comments concerning:
    (1) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning 
threats (or lack thereof) to these species and regulations that may be 
addressing those threats;
    (2) Additional information concerning the range, distribution, and 
population sizes of these species, including the locations of any 
additional populations of these species;
    (3) Any information on the biological or ecological requirements of 
these species;
    (4) Current or planned activities in the areas occupied by these 
species and their possible impacts on these species;
    (5) Which physical and biological factors are essential to the 
conservation of each species and whether those features may require 
special management considerations or protections;
    (6) Which specific areas area essential to the conservation of each 
species; and
    (7) The reasons why any areas should or should not be designated as 
critical habitat as provided by section 4 of the Endangered Species Act 
of 1973, as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), including whether 
the benefits of designation would outweigh the threats to the species 
that designation could cause, such that the designation of critical 
habitat is prudent.
    Please note that submissions merely stating support for or 
opposition to the action under consideration without providing 
supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in 
making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that 
determinations as to whether any species is a threatened or endangered 
species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and 
commercial data available.''
    You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed 
rule by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section.
    If you submit a comment via https://www.regulations.gov, your entire 
comment--including any personal identifying information--will be posted 
on the website. If your submission is made via a hardcopy that includes 
personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your 
document that we withhold this information from public review. However, 
we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all 
hardcopy submissions on https://www.regulations.gov. Please include 
sufficient information with your comments to allow us to verify any 
scientific or commercial information you include.
    Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting 
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be 
available for public inspection at https://www.regulations.gov, or by 
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR 
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
    You may obtain copies of the proposed rule by mail from the Pacific 
Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT) 
or by visiting the Federal eRulemaking Portal at https://
www.regulations.gov.

Background

Previous Federal Actions

    The candidate status of each of the two damselfly species proposed 
here for listing, the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly, was most recently reassessed and affirmed in the 
December 6, 2007, Notice of Review of Native Species that are 
Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened (CNOR) (72 FR 
69034). Candidate species are those taxa for which the Service has 
sufficient information on their biological status and threats to 
propose them for listing under the Act, but for which the development 
of a listing regulation has been precluded by other higher priority 
listing activities.
    Both the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly were first listed as candidate species on May 22, 1984 (49 FR 
21664). The flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly was listed as a Category 
3A (C3A) species, while the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly was listed as a 
Category 2 (C2) species. The flying earwig was removed from the 
candidate list on November 21, 1991 (56 FR 58804), whereas the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly retained its status as a C2 species. On November 15, 
1994 (59 FR 58982), the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly was added back 
to the candidate list, this time as a C2 species, and the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly was reclassified as a Category 1 species. In the 
Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR) published on February 28, 1996, we 
announced a revised list of plant and animal taxa that were regarded as 
candidates for possible addition to the Lists of Threatened and 
Endangered Wildlife and Plants (61 FR 7595). This revision also 
included a new ranking system, whereby each candidate species was 
assigned a Listing Priority Number (LPN) from 1 to 12. Both the flying 
earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly were 
assigned an LPN of 2 on February 28, 1996 (61 FR 7595).
    On May 4, 2004, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the 
Secretary of the Interior to list 225 species of plants and animals 
that were already candidates, including these two Hawaiian damselfly 
species, as endangered or threatened under the provisions of the Act. 
In our annual CNOR, dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), we retained a 
listing priority number of 2 for both of these species in accordance 
with our priority guidance published on September 21, 1983 (48 FR 
43098). A listing priority number of 2 reflects threats that are both 
imminent and high in magnitude, as well as the taxonomic classification 
of each of these two Hawaiian damselflies as distinct species. At the 
time, we determined that publication of a proposed rule to list these 
species was precluded by our work on higher priority listing actions. 
Since then, we have published our annual findings on the May 4, 2004, 
petition (including our findings on these two candidate species) in the 
CNORs dated September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53756), December 6, 2007 (72 FR 
69034), and December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176).
    In Fiscal year 2007, we determined that funding was available to 
initiate

[[Page 32492]]

work on listing determinations for these two species and that work on 
listing determinations was no longer precluded by higher priority 
actions. As such, this proposal constitutes our proposed listing 
determination for these two species.

Species Information

    The Hawaiian Islands are well-known for several spectacular 
evolutionary radiations resulting in a unique insect fauna found 
nowhere else in the world. One such group, which began its evolution 
perhaps as long as 10 million years ago (Jordan et al. 2003, p. 89), is 
the narrow-winged Hawaiian damselfly genus Megalagrion. This genus 
appears to be most closely related to species of Pseudagrion elsewhere 
in the Indo-Pacific (Zimmerman 1948a, pp. 341, 345). The Megalagrion 
species of the Hawaiian Islands have evolved to occupy as many larval 
breeding niches as all the rest of the world's damselfly species 
combined, and in terms of the number of insular endemic (native to only 
one island) species, are exceeded only by the radiation of damselfly 
species of Fiji in the Pacific (Jordan et al. 2003, p. 91). Resembling 
slender dragonflies, damselflies are distinguished by folding their 
wings parallel to the body while at rest rather than holding them out 
perpendicular to the body.
    Native Hawaiians apparently did not differentiate the various 
species, but referred to the native damselflies (and dragonflies) 
collectively as ``pinau,'' and to the red-colored damselflies 
specifically as ``pin ao ula.'' There has been no traditional European 
use of a common name for species in the genus Megalagrion. In his 1994 
taxonomic review of the candidate species of insects of the Hawaiian 
Islands, Nishida (1994, pp. 4-7) proposed the name ``Hawaiian 
damselflies'' as the common name for species in the genus Megalagrion. 
Because this name reflects the restricted distribution of these insects 
and is nontechnical, the common name ``Hawaiian damselflies'' is 
adopted for general use here, and we use the accepted common names 
flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and Pacific Hawaiian damselfly to 
identify the two individual species addressed in this proposed rule.
    The general biology of Hawaiian damselflies is typical of other 
narrow-winged damselflies (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, pp. 2-7). The 
males of most species are territorial, guarding areas of habitat where 
females will lay eggs (Moore 1983a, p. 89). During copulation, and 
often while the female lays eggs, the male grasps the female behind the 
head with terminal abdominal appendages to guard the female against 
rival males; thus males and females are frequently seen flying in 
tandem.
    In most species of Hawaiian damselflies, the immature larval stages 
(naiads) are aquatic, breathing through three flattened abdominal 
gills, and are predaceous, feeding on small aquatic invertebrates or 
fish (Williams 1936, p. 303). Females lay eggs in submerged aquatic 
vegetation or in mats of moss or algae on submerged rocks, and hatching 
occurs in about 10 days (Williams 1936, pp. 303, 306, 318; Evenhuis et 
al. 1995, p. 18). Naiads may take up to 4 months to mature (Williams 
1936, p. 309), after which they crawl out of the water onto rocks or 
vegetation to molt into winged adults, typically remaining close to the 
aquatic habitat from which they emerged. The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly 
exhibits this typical aquatic life history.
    The naiads of some species of Hawaiian damselflies are terrestrial 
or semi-terrestrial, living on wet rock faces or in damp terrestrial 
conditions, inhabiting wet leaf litter or moist leaf axils (the angled 
juncture of the leaf and stem) of native plants up to several feet 
above ground (Zimmerman 1970, p. 33; Simon et al. 1984, p. 13; Polhemus 
and Asquith 1996, p. 17). The naiads of these terrestrial and semi-
terrestrial species have evolved short, thick, hairy gills and in many 
species are unable to swim (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 75). The 
flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly is believed to exhibit this 
terrestrial or semi-terrestrial naiad life history.
    Adult damselflies are predaceous and feed on small flying insects 
such as midges. The adults of many of the Hawaiian Megalagrion spp. are 
unusual in that they have a highly developed behavior of feigning death 
when caught or attacked (Moore 1983b, pp. 161-165).
    The Hawaiian damselflies are represented by 23 species and 5 
subspecies, and are found on 6 of the Hawaiian Islands (Kauai, Oahu, 
Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii). There are more species of 
Megalagrion on the geologically older islands (e.g., 12 species on 
Kauai) than on the geologically youngest island (e.g., 8 species on 
Hawaii), and there are more single-island endemic species on the older 
islands (e.g., 10 on Kauai) than on the youngest island (e.g., none on 
Hawaii) (Jordan et al. 2003, p. 91). Historically, Megalagrion 
damselflies were among the most common and conspicuous native Hawaiian 
insects. Some species commonly inhabited water gardens in residential 
areas, artificial reservoirs, and watercress farms, and were even 
abundant in the city of Honolulu, as noted by early collectors of this 
group (Perkins 1899, p. 76; Perkins 1913, p. clxxviii; Williams 1936, 
p. 304).
    Beginning with the early alteration of streams and wetland systems 
by the colonizing Hawaiians, followed by extensive stream and wetland 
conversion, alteration, and modification, and by degradation of native 
forests through the 20th century, Hawaii's native damselflies, 
including the two species that are the subject of this proposal, 
experienced a tremendous reduction in available habitat. In addition, 
predation by a number of nonnative species that have been both 
intentionally and, in some cases, inadvertently introduced onto the 
Hawaiian Islands is a significant and ongoing threat to all native 
Hawaiian damselflies.
Flying Earwig Hawaiian Damselfly
    The flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly was first described from 
specimens collected in the 1890s in Puna on Hawaii Island by R.C.L. 
Perkins (1899, p. 72). Kennedy (1934, pp. 343-345) described what was 
believed at the time to be a new species of damselfly based on 
specimens from Maui; these were later determined to be synonymous with 
the specimens collected by Perkins. The flying earwig Hawaiian 
damselfly is a comparatively large and elongated species. The males are 
blue and black in color and exhibit distinctive, greatly enlarged, 
pincer-like cerci (paired appendages on the rear-most segment of the 
abdomen used to clasp the female during mating). Females are 
predominantly brownish in color. The adults measure from 1.8 to 1.9 
inches (in) (46 to 50 millimeters (mm)) in length and have a wingspan 
of 1.9 to 2.1 in (50 to 53 mm). The wings of both sexes are clear 
except for the tips, which are narrowly darkened along the front 
margins. Naiads of this species have never been collected or found 
(Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 69), but they are believed to be 
terrestrial or semi-terrestrial in habit (Kennedy 1934, p. 345; Preston 
2007).
    The biology of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly is not well 
understood, and it is unknown if this species is more likely to be 
associated with standing water or flowing water (Kennedy 1934, p. 345; 
Polhemus 1994, p. 40). The only confirmed population found in the last 
6 years occurs along a steep, moist, riparian talus slope (a slope 
formed by an accumulation of rock debris), densely covered with 
Dicranopteris linearis (uluhe), a native

[[Page 32493]]

fern. Adults of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly have been observed 
to perch on vegetation and boulders, and to fly slowly for short 
distances. When disturbed, the adults fly downward within nearby 
vegetation or between rocks, rather than up and away as is usually 
observed with aquatic Hawaiian damselfly species. Although immature 
individuals have not been located, based on the habitat and the 
behavior of the adults, it is believed that the naiads are terrestrial 
or semi-terrestrial, occurring among damp leaflitter (Kennedy 1934, p. 
345) or possibly within moist soil or seeps between boulders in 
suitable habitat (Preston 2007). The highest elevation at which this 
species has been recorded is 3,000 feet (ft) (914 meters (m)), but its 
close association with uluhe habitat suggests that its range may extend 
upward to close to 4,000 ft (1,212 m) (Foote 2007).
    Historically, the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly was known from 
the islands of Hawaii and Maui. On Hawaii, it was originally known from 
seven or more general localities. The species has not been seen on 
Hawaii for over 80 years, although extensive surveys within apparently 
suitable habitat in the Kau and Olaa areas were conducted from 1997 to 
2008 (Polhemus 2008). On Maui, the flying earwig damselfly was 
historically reported from five general locations on the windward side 
of the island (Kennedy 1934, p. 345). Since the 1930s, however, the 
flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly has only been observed in a single 
area on the windward side of east Maui, despite surveys from 1993 
through 2008 at several of its historically occupied sites. The last 
observation of the species on windward east Maui was in 2005 (Foote 
2008); the species was not observed during the last survey at this 
location in 2008. No quantitative estimate of the size of this 
remaining population is available.
    It is hypothesized that the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly may 
now be restricted to what is perhaps suboptimal habitat, where periodic 
absences of the species due to drought may be expected and might 
explain the lack of observations of the species (Foote 2007). Some 
researchers also believe that overcollection of this species by 
enthusiasts may have impacted some populations in the past (Polhemus 
2008). It is further possible that the individuals observed in this 
area are actually part of a larger population that may be located in 
the extensive belt of uluhe habitat located upslope, where the habitat 
is predominantly native shrubs and matted fern understory (Foote 2007; 
Hawaii Biodiversity and Mapping Program (HBMP) 2006). Unsurveyed areas 
containing potentially suitable habitat for this species include the 
Hana coast of east Maui, and the east rift zone of Kilauea and the Kona 
area on the island of Hawaii (Foote 2007).
Pacific Hawaiian Damselfly
    The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly was first described by McLachlan 
(1883, p. 234) based on specimens collected by R.C.L. Perkins from 
streams on the islands of Lanai and Maui. This damselfly is a 
relatively small, dark-colored species, with adults measuring from 1.3 
to 1.4 in (34 to 37 mm) in length and having a wingspan of 1.3 to 1.6 
in (33 to 42 mm). Both adult males and females are mostly black in 
color. Males exhibit brick red striping and patterns, while females 
exhibit light green striping and patterns. The only immature 
individuals of this species that have been collected were early-instar 
(an intermoult stage of development) individuals, and they exhibit 
flattened, leaf-like gills (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 83). This 
species is most easily distinguished from other Hawaiian damselflies by 
the extremely long lower abdominal appendages of the male, which 
greatly exceed the length of the upper appendages.
    Historically, the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly was known from lower 
elevations (below 2,000 ft (600 m)) on all of the main Hawaiian Islands 
except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Perkins 1899, p. 64). This species was 
known to breed primarily in lentic (standing water) systems such as 
marshes, seepage-fed pools, large ponds at higher elevations, and 
small, quiet pools in gulches that have been cut off from the main 
stream channel (Moore and Gagne 1982, p. 4; Polhemus and Asquith 1996, 
p. 83). The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is no longer found in most 
lentic habitats in Hawaii, such as ponds and taro (Colocasia esculenta) 
fields, due to predation by nonnative fish that now occur in these 
systems (Moore and Gagne 1982, p. 4; Englund et al. 2007, p. 215). 
Observations have confirmed that the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is now 
restricted almost exclusively to seepage-fed pools along overflow 
channels in the terminal reaches of perennial streams, usually in areas 
surrounded by thick vegetation (Moore and Gagne 1982, pp. 3-4; Polhemus 
1994, p. 54; Englund 1999, p. 236; Englund et al. 2007, p. 216; 
Polhemus 2007, p. 238). Adults usually do not stray far from the 
vicinity of the breeding pools, perching on bordering vegetation and 
flying only short distances when disturbed (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, 
p. 83). This species is rarely seen along main stream channels, and its 
ability to disperse long distances over land or water is suspected to 
be poor compared to other Hawaiian damselflies (Jordan et al. 2007, p. 
254).
    The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is now believed to be extirpated 
from the islands of Oahu, Kauai, and Lanai (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, 
p. 83). On the island of Oahu, due to its occupation of particularly 
vulnerable habitat within sidepools of lowland streams, the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly was rare by the 1890s and appears to have been 
extirpated from this island since 1910 (Liebherr and Polhemus 1997, p. 
494). It is unknown when the Kauai and Lanai populations of the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly disappeared. Until 1998, it was believed that the 
species may also have been extirpated from the island of Hawaii. That 
year, one population was discovered within a small stream located just 
above, but isolated from, Maili Stream, which is known to be occupied 
by nonnative fish (Englund 1998, pp. 15-16). By the late 1970s, fewer 
than six populations of the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly could be located 
on Maui and Molokai (Harwood 1976, pp. 251-253; Gagne 1980, pp. 119, 
125; Moore and Gagne 1982, p. 1), and the conservation of this species 
was identified as a priority by the International Union for the 
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Moore 1982, p. 209).
    The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is currently found in at least seven 
streams on Molokai and may possibly be extant in other, unsurveyed 
streams on Molokai's north coast that have not been invaded by 
nonnative fish (Englund 2008). On the island of Maui, the species is 
currently known from 14 streams. The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is no 
longer found along the entire reaches of these Maui streams, but only 
in restricted areas along each stream where steep terrain prevents 
access by nonnative fish, which inhabit degraded, lower stream reaches 
(Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 13; Englund et al. 2007, p. 215). The 
species is known from a single population on the island of Hawaii, last 
observed in 1998.
    No quantitative estimates of the size of the extant populations are 
available. Howarth (1991, p. 490) described the Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly as the most common and most widespread of the native 
damselfly species at the end of the 19th century, and yet a decline in 
this species was observed as early as 1905 due to the effects of 
nonnative fish introduced for control of mosquitoes.

[[Page 32494]]

Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

    Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) and its implementing 
regulations (50 CFR part 424) set forth the procedures for adding 
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and 
Plants. A species may be determined to be an endangered or threatened 
species due to one or more of the five factors described in section 
4(a)(1) of the Act. These five listing factors are: (A) The present or 
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or 
range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade 
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing a species as a 
threatened or endangered species under the Act may be warranted based 
on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination.
    The threats to the flying earwig and Pacific Hawaiian damselfly 
species are summarized according to the five listing factors in Table 
1, and discussed in detail below.

            TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF THREATS TO THE FLYING EARWING AND PACIFIC HAWAIIAN DAMSELFLY SPECIES.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 Flying Earwig Hawaiian      Pacific Hawaiian
                Threat                          Factor                 Damselfly                Damselfly
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Agriculture/urban development          A                        X                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
;Stream alteration                     A                        P                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Habitat modification by pigs           A                        X                        .......................
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Habitat modification by nonnative      A                        X                        X
 plants
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stochastic events                      A                        X                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Climate change                         A                        X                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Overcollection                         B                        P                        .......................
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Predation                              C                        A, BF (P)                A, B, F, BF
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Inadequate habitat protection          D                        X                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Inadequate protection from nonnative   D                        X                        X
 aquatic species introduction
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Limited populations                    E                        X                        X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A = ants B = backswimmers F = fish BF = bullfrogs P = potential threat

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of [Their] Habitat or Range

    Freshwater habitats used by the flying earwig and Pacific Hawaiian 
damselflies on all of the main Hawaiian Islands have been severely 
altered and degraded because of past and present land and water 
management practices, including: agriculture and urban development; 
development of ground water, perched aquifer (aquifer sitting above 
main water table), and surface water resources; and the deliberate and 
accidental introductions of nonnative animals (Harris et al. 1993, pp. 
12-13; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181-183).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Agriculture and Urban 
Development
    Although there has never been a comprehensive, site-by-site 
assessment of wetland loss in Hawaii (Erikson and Puttock 2006, p. 40), 
Dahl (1990, p. 7) estimated that at least 12 percent of lowland to 
upper-elevation wetlands in Hawaii had been converted to non-wetland 
habitat by the 1980s. If only coastal plain (below 1,000 ft (305 m)) 
wetlands are considered, it is estimated that 30 percent have been 
converted for agricultural and urban development (Kosaka 1990). These 
marshlands and wetlands provided habitat for several damselfly species, 
including the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly.
    Although extensive filling of freshwater wetlands is rarely 
permitted today, loss of riparian or wetland habitats utilized by the 
Pacific and flying earwig Hawaiian damselflies, such as smaller areas 
of moist slopes, emergent vegetations and narrow strips of freshwater 
seeps within anchialine pool complexes (landlocked bodies of water with 
a subterranean connection to the ocean), still occurs. In addition, 
marshes have been, and continue to be, slowly filled and converted to 
meadow habitat due to increased sedimentation resulting from increased 
storm water runoff from upslope development, the accumulation of 
uncontrolled growth of invasive vegetation, and blockage of downslope 
drainage (Wilson Okamoto & Associates, Inc. 1993, pp. 3-4 to 3-5).
    The effects of future conversion of wetland and other aquatic 
habitat for agriculture and urban development are immediate and 
significant for the following reason: as noted above, an estimated 30 
percent of all coastal plain wetlands in Hawaii have already been lost 
to agriculture and urban development, while the loss of lowland 
freshwater habitat in Hawaii already approaches 80 to 90 percent 
(Kosaka 1990). Lacking the aquatic habitat features that the 
damselflies require for essential life history needs, such as marshes, 
ponds, and sidepools along streams (Pacific Hawaiian damselfly) and 
riparian habitat (flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly), these modified 
areas no longer support populations of these two Hawaiian damselflies. 
Agriculture and urban development have thus contributed to the present 
curtailment of the habitat of these two Hawaiian damselflies, and we 
have no indication that this threat is likely to be significantly 
ameliorated in the near future.

[[Page 32495]]

Habitat Destruction and Modification by Stream Diversion
    Stream modifications began with the early Hawaiians who diverted 
water to irrigate taro. However, early diversions often took no more 
than half the stream flow, and typically were periodic, to occasionally 
flood taro ponds year round, rather than continuously flood them (Handy 
and Handy 1972, pp. 58-59).
    The advent of plantation sugarcane cultivation led to far more 
extensive stream diversions, with the first diversion built in 1856 on 
Kauai (Wilcox 1996, p. 54). These systems were designed to tap water at 
upper elevations (above 984 ft (300 m)) by means of a concrete weir in 
the stream (Wilcox 1996, p. 54). All or most of the low or average flow 
of the stream was, and often still is, diverted into fields or 
reservoirs, leaving many stream channels completely dry (Takasaki et 
al. 1969, pp. 27-28; Harris et al. 1993, p. 12; Wilcox 1996, p. 56).
    By the 1930s, water diversions had been developed on all of the 
main Hawaiian Islands, and by 1978 the stream flow in over one-half of 
all of the 366 perennial streams in Hawaii had been altered in some 
manner (Brasher 2003, p. 1055). Some stream diversion systems are 
extensive, such as the Waiahole Ditch, which diverts water from 37 
streams within the range of the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly on the 
windward side of Oahu to the dry plains on the leeward side of the 
island via a tunnel cut through the Koolau mountain range (Stearns and 
Vaksvik 1935, pp. 399-403). On west Maui, as of 1978, over 49 mi (78 
km) of stream habitat in 12 streams had been lost due to diversions, 
and all of the 17 perennial streams on west Maui are dewatered to some 
extent (Maciolek 1979, p. 605). This loss of stream habitat may have 
contributed to the extirpation of the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly 
population on west Maui. Given the affiliation of the flying earwig 
Hawaiian damselfly with riparian habitats, this loss of stream habitat 
may also potentially account for its absence on west Maui. Most lower-
elevation stream segments on west Maui are now completely dry, except 
during storm-influenced flows (Maciolek 1979, p. 605). The extensive 
diversion of streams on Maui island-wide has reduced the amount of 
stream habitat available to the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, and 
potentially to the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly as well.
    In addition to diverting water for agriculture and domestic water 
supply, streams in Hawaii have also been diverted for use in 
hydroelectric power. There are a total of 18 active hydroelectric 
plants operating on Hawaiian streams on the islands of Hawaii, Kauai, 
and Maui, only one of which is located on a stream where a historical 
population of the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly was known on Kauai 
(Waimea). Another 38 sites have been identified for potential 
hydroelectric development on the islands of Hawaii, Kauai, Maui, and 
Molokai (Hawaii Stream Assessment 1990, pp. xxi, 96-97). Three of the 
proposed sites include current populations of the Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly. Notably, the single current remaining population site for 
the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly on Maui is identified as a 
potential hydroelectric site. Any additional diversion of streams for 
use in hydroelectric power could contribute to further loss of stream 
habitat for the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly and for the flying earwig 
Hawaiian damselfly.
Habitat Modification and Destruction by Dewatering of Aquifers
    In addition to the diversion of stream water and the resultant 
downstream dewatering, many streams in Hawaii have experienced reduced 
or zero surface flow as a result of the dewatering of their source 
aquifers. Often these aquifers, which previously fed the streams, were 
tapped by tunneling or through the injudicious placement of wells 
(Stearns and Vaksvik 1935, pp. 386-434; Stearns 1985, pp. 291-305). 
These groundwater sources were captured for both domestic and 
agricultural use and in some areas have completely depleted nearby 
stream and spring flows. For example, the Waikolu Stream on Molokai has 
reduced flow due in part to groundwater withdrawal (Brasher 2003, p. 
1,056), which may have reduced stream habitat available to the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly. Likewise, on Maui, streams in the west Maui 
Mountains that flow into the Lahaina District are fed by groundwater 
leaking from breached, high-elevation dikes. Downstream of the dike 
compartments, stream diversions are designed to capture all of the low 
stream flow, causing the streams downstream to be frequently dry (U.S. 
Geological Survey 2008a, p. 1), likely impacting available habitat for 
the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, and potentially for the flying earwig 
Hawaiian damselfly, in the Honolua and Honokohau streams.
    The island of Lanai lies within the rain shadow of the west Maui 
Mountains, which reach 5,788 ft (1,764 m) in elevation. Lower in 
elevation than Maui, annual rainfall on Lanai's summit is 30 to 40 in 
(760 to 1,015 mm) but much less over the rest of the island (University 
of Hawaii Department of Geography 1998, p. 13). Flows of almost every 
spring and seep on Lanai have been diverted (Stearns 1940, pp. 73-74, 
85, 88, 95). Surface waters in streams have also been diverted by 
tunnels in stream beds. Historically, Maunalei Stream was the only 
perennial stream on Lanai, and Hawaiians constructed taro loi (ponds 
for cultivation of taro) in the lower portions of this stream system. 
In 1911, a tunnel was constructed at 1,100 ft (330 m) elevation that 
undercuts the stream bed, diverting both the surface and subsurface 
flows and dewatering the stream from this point to its mouth (Stearns 
1940, pp. 86-88). The Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, which depends on 
stream habitat, was historically known from Lanai but is no longer 
extant on this island, and was most likely impacted by the dewatering 
of this stream because it was the only permanent stream on Lanai prior 
to its dewatering. This example of the negative impact of dewatering 
leads us to conclude that dewatering poses a threat to the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly and the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly on the 
remaining islands where the species persist.
Habitat Modification and Destruction by Vertical Wells
    Surface flow of streams has also been affected by vertical wells 
drilled in pre-modern times, because the basal aquifer (lowest 
groundwater layer) and alluvial caprock (sediment-deposited harder rock 
layer) through which the lower sections of streams flow can be pierced 
and hydraulically connected by wells (Stearns 1940, p. 88). This allows 
water in aquifers normally feeding the stream to be diverted elsewhere 
underground. Dewatering of the streams by tunneling and earlier, less-
informed well placement near or in streams was a significant cause of 
habitat loss, and these effects continue today. Historically, for 
example, there was sufficient surface flow in Makaha and Nanakuli 
streams on Oahu to support taro loi in their lower reaches, but this 
flow disappeared subsequent to construction of vertical wells upstream 
(Devick 1995). The inadvertent dewatering of streams through the 
piercing of their aquifers (which are normally separated from adjacent 
water-bearing layers by an impermeable layer), by tunneling or through 
placement of vertical wells, caused the loss of Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly habitat, and contributed to the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly's 
extirpation on the islands of Oahu, Kauai, and Lanai. Such activities 
also reduced the extent of stream habitat

[[Page 32496]]

for the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly on the islands of Maui, Molokai, and 
Hawaii. Most lower-elevation stream segments on west Maui and leeward 
east Maui are now completely dry, except during storm-influenced flows 
(Maciolek 1979, p. 605). The flow of nearly every seep and spring on 
Lanai has been captured or bored with wells (Stearns 1940, pp. 73-74, 
85, 88, 95). The inadvertent drying of streams from poor well 
replacement and other activities has contributed to the decline of the 
Pacific Hawaiian damselfly by reducing its habitat on all of the 
islands from which it was historically known. It should be noted that 
the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly was once among the most commonly 
observed aquatic insects in the islands (Howarth 1991, p. 40). The 
dewatering of streams on Maui and Hawaii may also have impacted habitat 
of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly.
    Although the State of Hawaii's Commission on Water Resource 
Management is now more cognizant of the effects that ground water 
removal has on streams via injudicious placement of wells, the 
Commission still routinely reviews new permit applications for wells 
(Hardy 2009). All requests for new wells require a drilling permit and, 
in some cases, a use permit is additionally required, depending upon 
the intended allocation and anticipated amount of water to be pumped 
from the well. Water Management Areas have been designated over much of 
Oahu and in some areas on other neighboring islands. Within these 
areas, a use permit for a new well is also required, which 
automatically triggers a greater review of the potential impacts. Any 
request for a permit to drill a well within proximity of streams or 
dike rock located at the headwaters of streams automatically triggers 
additional review (Hardy 2009). Permits to drill wells near streams or 
within dike complexes are now unlikely to be granted because a new well 
would require the amendment of in-stream flow standards for the 
impacted stream. However, such amendments are sometimes approved. One 
example is the long-contested case involving the Waiahole Ditch on the 
island of Oahu (Hawaii Department of Agriculture 2002). In that case, 
the Commission continues to support the removal of several million 
gallons of water daily from windward Oahu streams (Hawaii Department of 
Agriculture 2002). In conclusion, although a regulatory process is in 
place that can potentially address the effects of new requests for 
ground water removal on streams, this process includes provisions for 
amendments that would result in adverse effects to ground water that 
supports streamside habitat for the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, and 
potentially for the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly.
Habitat Modification and Destruction by Channelization
    In addition to the destruction of most of the stream habitat of the 
Pacific Hawaiian damselfly and the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly, 
most remaining stream habitat has been, and continues to be, seriously 
degraded throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Stream degradation has been 
particularly severe on the island of Oahu where, by 1978, 58 percent of 
all the perennial streams had been channelized (lined, partially lined 
or altered) to control flooding (Brasher 2003, p. 1055; Polhemus and 
Asquith 1996, p. 24), and 89 percent of the total length of these 
streams had been channelized (Parrish et al. 1984, p. 83). The 
channelization of streams creates artificial, wide-bottomed stream beds 
and often results in removal of riparian vegetation, increased 
substrate homogeneity, increased temporal water velocity (increased 
water flow speed during times of higher precipitation including minor 
and major flooding), increased illumination, and higher water 
temperatures (Parrish et al. 1984, p. 83; Brasher 2003, p. 1052). 
Natural streams meander and are lined with rocks, trees, and natural 
debris, and during times of flooding, jump their banks. Channelized 
streams are straightened and often lack natural obstructions, and 
during times of higher precipitation or flooding, facilitate a higher 
water flow velocity. Hawaiian damselflies are largely absent from 
channelized portions of streams (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 24). In 
contrast, undisturbed Hawaiian stream systems exhibit a greater amount 
of riffle habitat, canopy closure, higher consistent flow velocity, and 
lower water temperatures that are characteristic of streams to which 
the Hawaiian damselflies, in general, are adapted (Brasher 2003, pp. 
1054-1057).
    Channelization of streams has not been restricted to lower stream 
reaches. For example, there is extensive channelization of the Kalihi 
Stream, on the island of Oahu, above 1,000 ft (300 m) elevation. 
Extensive stream channelization has contributed to the extirpation of 
the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly on Oahu (Englund 1999, p. 236; Polhemus 
2008).
    Stream diversion, channelization, and dewatering represent 
significant and immediate threats to the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly for 
the following reasons: (1) They reduce the amount and distribution of 
stream habitat available to this species; (2) they reduce stream flow, 
leaving lower elevation stream segments completely dry except during 
storms, or leaving many streams completely dry year round, thus 
reducing or eliminating stream habitat; and (3) they indirectly lead to 
an increase in water temperature that leads to the loss of Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly naiads due to direct physiological stress. Because 
the probability of species extinction increases when ranges are 
restricted, habitat decreases, and population numbers decline, the 
Pacific Hawaiian damselfly is particularly vulnerable to extinction due 
to such changes in its stream habitats. In addition, stream diversion, 
dewatering, and vertical wells have the potential to negatively impact, 
and in some cases may have impacted, the flying earwig Hawaiian 
damselfly.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Feral Pigs
    One of the primary threats to the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly 
is the ongoing destruction and degradation of its riparian habitat by 
nonnative animals, particularly feral pigs (Sus scrofa) (Polhemus and 
Asquith 1996, p. 22; Erickson and Puttock 2006, p. 42). Pigs of Asian 
descent were first introduced to Hawaii by the Polynesian ancestors of 
Hawaiians around 400 A.D. (Kirch 1982, pp. 3-4). Western immigrants, 
beginning with Captain Cook in 1778, repeatedly introduced European 
strains (Tomich 1986, pp. 120-121). The pigs escaped domestication and 
successfully invaded all areas, including wet and mesic forests and 
grasslands, on all of the main Hawaiian Islands.
    High pig densities and expansion of their distribution have caused 
indisputable widespread damage to native vegetation on the Hawaiian 
Islands (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63). Feral pigs create open areas 
within forest habitat by digging up, eating, and trampling native plant 
species (Stone 1985, p. 263). These open areas become fertile ground 
for nonnative plant seeds spread through the excrement of the pigs and 
by transport in their hair (Stone 1985, p. 263). In nitrogen-poor 
soils, feral pig excrement increases nutrient availability, enhancing 
establishment of nonnative weeds that are more adapted to richer soils 
than are native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 65). In this manner, 
largely nonnative forests replace native forest habitat (Cuddihy and 
Stone 1990, p. 65). In

[[Page 32497]]

addition, feral pigs will root and dig for plant tubers and worms in 
wetlands, including marshes, on all of the main Hawaiian Islands 
(Erikson and Puttock 2006, p. 42).
    In a study conducted in the 1980s on feral pig populations in the 
Kipahulu Valley on Maui, the deleterious effects of feral pig rooting 
on native forest ecosystems was documented (Diong 1982, pp. 150, 160-
167). Rooting by feral pigs was observed to be related to the search 
for earthworms, with rooting depths averaging 8 in (20 cm), and rooting 
was found to greatly disrupt the leaf litter and topsoil layers, and 
contribute to erosion and changes in ground topography. The feeding 
habits of pigs were observed to create seed beds, enabling the 
establishment and spread of invasive weedy species such as Clidemia 
hirta (Koster's curse). The study concluded that all aspects of the 
feeding habits of pigs are damaging to the structure and function of 
the Hawaiian forest ecosystem (Diong 1982, pp. 160-167).
    It is likely that pigs similarly impact the native vegetation used 
for perching by adult flying earwig Hawaiian damselflies. On Maui, 
feral pigs inhabit the uluhe-dominated riparian habitat of the flying 
earwig Hawaiian damselfly. Through their rooting and digging 
activities, they have significantly degraded and destroyed the habitat 
of the adult flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly (Foote 2008).
    In addition to creating conditions that enable the spread of 
nonnative plant species, Mountainspring (1986, p. 98) surmised that 
rooting by pigs depresses insect populations that depend upon the 
ground layer at some life stage or that exhibit diel (day and night) 
movements. As a result, it is likely that the presumed habitat (seeps 
or damp leaf litter) of the naiads of the flying earwig Hawaiian 
damselfly is negatively impacted by feral pig activity, including the 
uprooting and denuding of native vegetation (Foote 2008; Polhemus 
2008).
    Notwithstanding the above impacts, feral pigs are managed as a game 
animal for public hunting in the more accessible regions of the east 
Maui watershed (Jokiel 2008). In contrast to an eradication program, 
this action makes it likely that feral pigs will continue to exist on 
Maui, and thus likely that pigs will continue to destroy and degrade 
habitat of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly on the island of Maui.
    The effects from introduced feral pigs are immediate and ongoing 
because pigs currently occur in the uluhe-dominated riparian habitat of 
the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly. The threat of habitat destruction 
or modification from feral pigs is significant for the following 
reasons: (1) Trampling and grazing directly impact the vegetation used 
by adult flying earwig Hawaiian damselflies for perching and by the 
terrestrial or semi-terrestrial naiads; (2) increased soil disturbance 
leads to mechanical damage to plants used by adults for perching and by 
the terrestrial or semi-terrestrial naiads; (3) creation of open, 
disturbed areas, conducive to weedy plant invasion and establishment of 
alien plants from dispersed fruits and seeds, results over time in the 
conversion of a community dominated by native vegetation to one 
dominated by nonnative vegetation (leading to all of the negative 
impacts associated with nonnative plants, detailed below); and (4) 
increased watershed erosion and sedimentation further degrade habitat 
for the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly. These threats are expected to 
continue or increase without control or elimination of pig populations 
in these habitats.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants
    The invasion of nonnative plants, including Clidemia hirta, further 
contributes to the degradation of Hawaii's native forests, including 
the riparian habitat of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly on Maui 
(Foote 2008). Clidemia hirta is the most serious nonnative plant 
invader within the uluhe-dominated riparian habitat where the flying 
earwig Hawaiian damselfly occurs on Maui and where it formerly occurred 
on the island of Hawaii (Foote 2008). Clidemia hirta can outcompete the 
native uluhe fern, and so is capable of altering the natural 
environment where the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly occurs. A 
noxious shrub first cultivated in Wahiawa on Oahu before 1941, this 
plant is now found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 
1985, p. 41). Clidemia hirta forms a dense understory, shading out 
native plants and hindering their regeneration; it is considered a 
major nonnative plant threat in wet forest areas because it inhibits 
and eventually replaces native plants (Wagner et al. 1985, p. 41; Smith 
1989, p. 64).
    Presently, the most significant threat to natural ponds and marshes 
in Hawaii is the nonnative species Urochloa mutica (California grass). 
This sprawling perennial grass is likely from Africa (Erickson and 
Puttock 2006, p. 270). It was first noted on Oahu in 1924 and now 
occurs on all of the main Hawaiian Islands (O'Connor 1999, p. 1,504), 
where it is considered an aggressive invasive weed of marshes and 
wetlands (Erickson and Puttock 2006, p. 270). Found from sea level to 
3,610 ft (1,100 m) in elevation (Erickson and Puttock 2006, p. 270), 
this plant forms dense, monotypic stands that can completely eliminate 
any open water by layering its trailing stems (Smith 1985, p. 186). 
Marshlands eventually convert to meadowland when invaded by Urochloa 
mutica (Polhemus and Asquith 1996, p. 23). At Kawainui Marsh, the most 
extensive marsh system remaining on Oahu, control of Urochloa mutica to 
prevent conversion of the marsh to meadowland is an ongoing management 
activity (Wilson, Okamoto and Associates, Inc. 1993, pp. 3-4; Hawaiian 
Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR) 2008, p. 1). The preferred habitat of the 
Pacific Hawaiian damselfly (primarily lowland, stagnant water, large 
ponds, and small pools) on all of the Hawaiian Islands has likely 
declined and continues to decline due to the spread of Urochloa mutica, 
which is causing the conversion of marshlands to meadowlands (Polhemus 
and Asquith 1996, p. 23).
    Nonnative plants represent a significant and immediate and ongoing 
threat to the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly through habitat 
destruction and modification for the following reasons: (1) They 
adversely impact microhabitat by modifying the availability of light; 
(2) they alter soil-water regimes; (3) they modify nutrient cycling 
processes; and (4) they outcompete, and possibly directly inhibit the 
growth of, native plant species; ultimately, native dominated plant 
communities are converted to nonnative plant communities (Cuddihy and 
Stone 1990, p. 74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33-35). This conversion 
negatively impacts and threatens the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly, 
which depends upon native plant species, particularly uluhe, for 
essential life history needs. Conversion habitat from marshlands to 
meadowlands by the nonnative Urochloa mutica also threatens the Pacific 
Hawaiian damselfly. These threats are expected to continue or increase 
without control or elimination of invasive nonnative plants in these 
habitats.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Hurricanes, Landslides, and 
Drought
    Stochastic (random, naturally occurring) events, such as 
hurricanes, landslides, and drought, alter or degrade the habitat of 
Hawaiian damselflies directly by modifying and destroying native 
riparian, wetland, and stream habitats (e.g., rocks and debris falling 
in a stream; mechanical damage to riparian and wetland vegetation), and 
indirectly

[[Page 32498]]

by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative plants 
that outcompete the native plants used by damselflies for perching. We 
presume these events also alter microclimatic conditions (e.g., opening 
the tree canopy that leads to an increase in stream water temperature; 
increasing stream sedimentation) so that the habitat no longer supports 
damselfly populations. Both the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and 
the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly may also be affected by temporary 
habitat loss (e.g., desiccation of streams, die-off of uluhe) 
associated with droughts, which are not uncommon on the Hawaiian 
Islands. With populations that have already been severely reduced in 
both abundance and geographic distribution, even such a temporary loss 
of habitat can have a negative impact on the species.
    Natural disasters such as hurricanes and drought, and local, random 
environmental events (such as landslides), represent a significant 
threat to native riparian, wetland, and stream habitat and the two 
damselfly species addressed in this proposed rule. These types of 
events are known to cause significant habitat damage (e.g., Polhemus 
1993, p. 86). Because the two species addressed in this proposed rule 
now persist in low numbers or occur in restricted ranges, they are more 
vulnerable to these events and less resilient to such habitat 
disturbances. Hurricanes, drought, and landslides are known and 
expected to occur at irregular intervals. Therefore, they pose an 
immediate and ongoing threat to the two damselfly species and their 
habitat.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Climate Change
    The information currently available on the effects of global 
climate change does not make sufficiently precise estimates of the 
location and magnitude of the effects. Consequently, the exact nature 
of the impacts of climate change and increasing temperatures on native 
Hawaiian ecosystems, including the aquatic and riparian habitats of the 
flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, 
are unknown. However, they are likely to include the loss of aquatic 
habitat through reduced stream flow and evaporation of standing water, 
increased streamwater temperature, and the loss of native riparian and 
wetland plants that comprise the habitat in which these two species 
occur (Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611-612; Still et al. 1999, p. 610; 
Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14,246 and 14,248).
    Oki (2004, p. 4) has noted long-term evidence of decreased 
precipitation and stream flow in the Hawaiian Islands, based upon 
evidence collected by stream gauging stations. This long-term drying 
trend, coupled with existing ditch diversions and periodic El 
Ni[ntilde]o-caused drying events, has created a pattern of severe and 
persistent stream dewatering events (Polhemus 2008). Future changes in 
precipitation and the forecast of those changes are highly uncertain 
because they depend, in part, on how the El Ni[ntilde]o-La Ni[ntilde]a 
weather cycle (a disruption of the ocean atmospheric system in the 
tropical Pacific having important global consequences for weather and 
climate) might change (Hawaii Climate Change Action Plan 1998, pp. 2-
10).
    The flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly may be especially vulnerable to extinction due to anticipated 
environmental change that may result from global climate change. 
Environmental changes that may affect these species are expected to 
include habitat loss or alteration and changes in disturbance regimes 
(e.g., storms and hurricanes), in addition to direct physiological 
stress caused by increased stream water temperatures to which the 
native Hawaiian damselfly fauna are not adapted. The probability of a 
species going extinct as a result of these factors increases when its 
range is restricted, habitat decreases, and population numbers decline 
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, p. 8). Both of these 
damselfly species have limited environmental tolerances ranges, 
restricted habitat requirements, small population size, and a low 
number of individuals. Therefore, we would expect these species to be 
particularly vulnerable to projected environmental impacts that may 
result from changes in climate, and subsequent impacts to their aquatic 
and riparian habitats (e.g., Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611-612; Still et 
al. 1999, p. 610; Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14,246 and 14,248). We 
believe changes in environmental conditions that may result from 
climate change will likely impact these two species and, according to 
current climate projections, we do not anticipate a reduction in this 
threat any time in the near future.
Summary of Factor A
    The effects of past and present destruction, modification, and 
degradation of native riparian, wetland, and stream habitats threaten 
the continued existence of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the 
Pacific Hawaiian damselfly, which depend on these habitats, throughout 
their respective ranges. These effects have been or continue to be 
caused by: agriculture and urban development; stream diversion, 
channelization, and dewatering; introduced feral pigs; introduced 
plants; and hurricanes, landslides, and drought. The ongoing and likely 
increasing effects of global climate change are also likely to 
adversely impact, directly or indirectly, the habitat of these two 
species.
    Agriculture and urban development, to date, have caused the loss of 
30 percent of Hawaii's coastal plain wetlands and 80 to 90 percent of 
lowland freshwater habitat in Hawaii. Extensive stream diversions and 
the ongoing dewatering of remaining wetland habitats continue to 
degrade the quality of Pacific Hawaiian damselfly habitat and its 
capability to support viable populations of this species and may also 
negatively affect the habitat of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly. 
Ongoing habitat destruction and degradation caused by feral pigs in 
remaining tracts of uluhe-dominated riparian habitat promote the 
establishment and spread of nonnative plants which, in turn, lower or 
destroy the capability of the habitat to support viable populations of 
the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly.
    The above threats have caused the extirpation of many flying earwig 
Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly populations; as a 
result, their current ranges are very restricted. The combination of 
restricted range, limited habitat quantity and quality, and low 
population size makes each of these species especially vulnerable to 
extinction. Thus we consider the present or threatened destruction, 
modification, or curtailment of the habitat and range of the flying 
earwig Hawaiian damselfly and the Pacific Hawaiian damselfly to pose an 
immediate and significant threat to these species.

Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes

    Individuals from what may be the single remaining population of the 
flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly were collected by amateur collectors 
as recently as the mid-1990s (Polhemus 2008). Although it is not known 
how many individuals were collected at that time, Polhemus (2008) 
believes this incident resulted in a noticeable decrease in the 
population size. Furthermore, if there is only one population of the 
species left, the decreased reproduction that would result from the 
removal of potentially breeding adults would have a

[[Page 32499]]

potentially significant negative impact on the species.
    There is a market for damselflies that may serve as an incentive to 
collect them. There are internet websites that offer damselfly 
specimens or parts (e.g., wings) for sale. In addition, the internet 
abounds with ``how to'' guides for collecting and preserving damselfly 
specimens (e.g., Abbott 2000, pp. 1-3). After butterflies and large 
beetles, dragonflies and damselflies are probably the most frequently 
collected insects in the world (Polhemus 2009). A rare specimen such as 
the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly may be particularly attractive to 
potential collectors (Polhemus 2008). Based on the history of 
collection of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly, the market for 
damselfly specimens or parts, and the vulnerability of this small 
population to the negative impacts of any collection, we consider the 
potential overutilization of the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly to 
pose an immediate and significant threat to this species.
    Unlike the flying earwig Hawaiian damselfly, which is restricted to 
one remaining population site and which is known to have previously 
been of interest to odonata enthusiasts (Polhemus 2008), we do not 
believe over-collection is currently a threat to the Pacific Hawaiian 
damselfly because it is comparatively more widespread across several 
population sites on three islands.

Factor C. Disease or Predation

    The geographic isolation of the Hawaiian Islands restricted the 
number of original successful colonizing arthropods and resulted in the 
development of Hawaii's unusual fauna. Only 15 percent of the known 
families of insects are represented by native Hawaiian species (Howarth 
1990, p. 11). Some groups of insects that often dominate continental 
arthropod fauna, including social Hymenoptera (e.g., ants and wasps) 
were abse